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The Translation of Neologisms: Challenges for the Creation of New Terms in Indonesian Using a Corpus-based Approach

Dr. Karnedi, M.A.

Abstract −This paper aims to discuss neologisms in Indonesian as a result of translation. The main objective is to identify the creation of new lexical units through professional translation activities, particularly the translation of neologisms in economics texts from English into Indonesian. As far as the methodology is concerned, a parallel corpus has been designed as a s tudy corpus which consists of some English texts as the source text and their translation in Indonesian as the target text (TT). For this purpose, a number of translated economics textbooks have been randomly chosen. They represent economics texs as a genre. The data is processed by utilizing W ordSmith Tools version 5.0, a computer program that has been widely used in Corpus Linguistics research. A list of keywords involving the British National Corpus as a referent corpus is provided for the elicitation of neologisms in the ST. A comparative analysis involving their equivalents in Indonesian is then undertaken. Research findings show that new forms comprising collocations and acronyms (apart from eponyms, new coinages, derived words and phrasal words) are those dominant types of neologisms adapted from the source language (SL) through translating economics texts. Within the context of language planning in Indonesia, particularly corpus planning, the creation of Indonesian-oriented new terms in economics by professional translators seems to be a dynamic and sustainable process that could enrich the Glossary of English-Indonesian Technical Terms (GOEITT), called Glosarium Istilah Asing-Indonesia, produced by the National Language Development Agency (Badan Bahasa), as an effort to modernize Indonesian through translating neologisms in economics texts.

Keywords: economics text, neologism, language planning, parallel corpus, translation

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1. Introduction

The metaphorical expression DO NOT Leave Your Language Alone seems to be an early warning to the stakeholders of language planning, particularly in terms of corpus planning [9], [6]. According to Cooper [5], language planning stakeholders comprises writers, poets, linguists, language teachers, lexicographers, translators, as well as missionarists, soldiers and administrators. (pp. 183−184) Within the context of global and cross-cultural communication, the influence of a dominant language on other minor languages in the era of globalization is an unavoidable linguistic reality. Along with the development of science and technology, some languages have direct contact through various aspects of life which have positively contributed to each other‘s development.
One of the linguistic aspects which has been developing so rapidly is technical terminology in different sciences. This then becomes the domain of neologisms, that is, new words created in a language as a result of science and technology development, including terms commonly used in Economics. Etymologically, neologisms came from the Latin words: neo (new) and logos (word). Thus, neologisms mean the creation of new words involving two languages or more, including the creation of new terms in Indonesian taken from foreign languages.

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This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Language

Planning with the theme "Language Planning in the 21st Century: Obstacles

and Challenges". Jakarta: Indonesia’s National Language Development

Agency (Badan Bahasa), 2 to 4 November 2010.

Dr.Karnedi, M.A. is currently an academic at the Indonesia Open University,

Indonesia. PH-081280846991.

Email: karnedi@ut.ac.id
Within the context of language planning in Indonesia, a number of new terms have been created, partly through English-Indonesian translation activities involving economics texts. The efforts that have been made in order to create those new terms are in part aimed to modernize Indonesian. Modernization, according to Cooper [5], is the third criteria of language development, apart from graphization, standardization, codification, and elaboration. (p. 149) Language modernization is considered as a process of how a language is entitled to be a tool of communication associated with modern topics and different discourse. Within the cross- cultural communication, this gives Indonesian the same status as other world languages. ( [5] pp. 149−153) In order to meet the Indonesian society‘s needs for bilingual terms involving foreign languages, the National Language Development Agency (Badan Bahasa) of the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Indonesia has launched a linguistic product, called Glosarium Istilah Asing- Indonesia (i.e. a glossary of English-Indonesian technical terms), a computer program containing a database of new terms in various basic sciences. A large number of linguists from three neighbouring countries − Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia and Malaysia – united in a regional language council called Majelis Bahasa Brunei Darussalam-Indonesia- Malaysia (Mabbim) or the Language Council of Brunei- Indonesia-Malaysia. The program proved to be extremely useful for the users who are facing dilemmas of whether to choose standardized terms in Indonesian, or to keep using their own equivalent terms in relation to a particular science when translating a text from English into Indonesian.

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However, having seen the range of English-Indonesian technical terms compiled in the database of the glossary concerned, the emphasis was given more on the collocational pattern L4+ L3 + L2 + L1 + Node + R1+ R2 + R3 + R4. [21], [22] Node is a keyword that collocates with a number of words within a phrasal construction. L refers to those words which occur before the keyword while R refers to those words that occur after the keyword. Based on the corpus approach which heavily relies on the frequency of occurrences of certain language patterns, the occurrences of the above pattern, especially in economics texts, are not significantly high, compared to the pattern L1 + Node + R1. It is admitted that those technical terms constructed on the basis of the longer range of language pattern are regarded as the most important terms commonly used in the relevant field. For example, the phrase price elasticity of demand, as a technical term in economics texts, has been rendered into Indonesian using two alternative equivalents, that is, keanjalan permintaan harga and elastisitas-harga permintaan. The latter one seems to be in favour of the SL because the word elasticity has been translated as elastisitas, which is governed by the Indonesian phonological rules as the target language (TL). Still, the equivalent is the source-language-oriented.
Unlike the above collocational pattern, the shorter range of language pattern, like L1 + Node + R1 whose frequency of occurrences exceed the longer range of pattern, are not fully accommodated in the Glossary of English-Indonesian Technical Terms (GOEITT), as can be seen from Table 1 below. The collocational pattern equilibrium price (L1 + Node) has the second highest frequency of occurrence (i.e. 97) after the collocational pattern price level with the frequency of 297. Ironically, the former collocational pattern (i.e. equilibrium price) has only been classified into both Fisheries and Politics in the GOEITT, which is equivalent to the phrase harga keseimbangan in Indonesian. Based on the corpus analysis, the same term is also widely used in economics texts. In addition to this, as the professional translator‘s choice indicates, the collocational pattern price ceiling (Node + R1) in the Indonesian translated text (TT) is equivalent to the phrase batas harga tertinggi. The GOEITT contradictorily presents the pattern as ceiling price (L1 + Node) which is equivalent to the phrase harga pagu in Indonesian. Even though the combination of the lexical items (i.e. batas harga tertinggi) is constructed from three words already available in Indonesian (batas = limit; harga = price; tertinggi = the highest), a new meaning resulting from a translation process is created as soon as they are combined into the phrasal construction.

TABLE 1

COLLOCATIONAL PATTERN L1 + NODE + R1

FOR THE KEYW ORD PRICE

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HIGH price 0 10 24 24 0 24 0 0
Coming back to the term equilibrium price, as mentioned earlier, it has been commonly used in economics texts with two alternative equivalents chosen by different translators in the TT – harga keseimbangan and harga ekuilibrium. Both options for the English term in Indonesian reflect the translator‘s language taste or style ( [1] pp. 241−266), which also refers to translation methods applied by the translators, whether they have the SL or the TL orientation. Translator X preferred to choose harga keseimbangan for the term equilibrium price, whereas translator Y used the terms harga ekuilibrium in the Indonesian translated text.
Table 2 presents a small number of technical terms commonly used in a few basic sciences as presented in the GOEITT that are also found in the parallel corpus of economics texts.

TABLE 2

SAMPLES OF NEW TERMS IN THE GOEITT ACROSS BASIC SCIENCES

Neologisms are created as a result of a creative writing process involving the ST. Consequently, a large number of new terms have been added to a language under the name of terminology of sciences, such as Economics as one branch of social sciences. The creation of new acronyms, such as LDC, GNP, GDP and EVA, has been considered as neologisms phenomena in economics texts as a technical text or special language. EVA, for instance, as an acronym in economics texts, particularly in Management, stands for Economic Value- Added. Having done a comparative corpus analysis, it was found that the translator created the term nilai tambah ekonomis in Indonesian (neologism) as an equivalent for the English acronym. It is therefore interesting to investigate how neologisms in English economics texts have been translated into Indonesian by professional translators.
Research in Translation Studies show that translators often encounter difficulties when they translate neologisms in non-fiction texts. ( [17], p. 140) Differences in the way the translator chooses certain equivalents greatly depend upon the translation methods being adopted, whether the SL-
oriented or the TL-oriented. [17], [8] Translator X preferred to use the equivalent harga keseimbangan which is Indonesian- oriented while translator Y chose harga ekuilibrium as an equivalent for the term equilibrium price. The latter alternative equivalent seems to be restricted by, or faithful to, the SL. Neologisms in Indonesian, as briefly explained above, are regarded as an interesting phenomenon of new terms formation, which becomes the main concern of this research on the basis of a parallel corpus.

2. Literature Review

The definition of the term ‗neologism‘, that is, the use of new words and old expressions with new meaning was partly proposed by ( [17] pp. 140−150). He classifies neologisms into twelve types which were then divided into two major parts:
1. Existing lexical items with new senses/old words with new sense consisting of: (1) words (e.g. sophisticated planning processes and formal plans); (2) existing collocations with new meaning (e.g. high-quality products);
2. New forms comprising: (1) new coinages (e.g. Nokia and BlackBerry); (2) derived words (e.g. neoMarxist); (3) abbreviations (e.g. neolib as a short form of neoliberalism); (4) new collocations (e.g. capital flight); (5) eponyms (e.g. Keynesian model); (6) phrasal words (e.g. a trade-off); (7) transferred words (e.g. Nike competes against Reebok, Adidas and Fila); (8) acronyms (e.g. LDCs for Less Developing Countries); (9) pseudo-neologism (e.g. investment ratio); (10) internationalisms (e.g. bite in the domain of computer). On the other hand, ( [10] pp. 245−253) groupes neologisms into six categories: (1) Scientific terms (e.g. nonautoregressive means ususual); (2) Initials (e.g. SURE for seemingly unrelated regression equations); (3) Name- attributes (e.g. Faustmann-Ohlin Theorem vs Heckscher- Ohlin Model); (4) Colloqualisms (e.g. sticky related to rents and prices); (5) Metaphors (e.g. shadow prices); (6) Economic stories (e.g. one constructed theories).
Another definition of neologism was put forward by ( [19] p. 77), that is, ―a unit of the lexicon, a word, a word element or a phrase, whose meaning, or whose signifier- signified relationship, presupposing an effective function in a specific model of communication, ...‖. The definition emphasizes on the components and functions of neologisms within the context of communication. In order to response to rapid social changes, neologisms were created through three stages: (1) creating new words and phrases; (2) borrowing words from a foreign language/loan words; (3) giving new meanings towards the existing words
( [4] p. 189).
As raised by Newmark, translating neologisms also
poses translation problems. A study on the translation of
neologisms in literary text was conducted by [7]. She

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investigated how the process of translating neologisms in two novels written by Douglas Adams entitled The Hitchhike’s Guide to the Glaxy and the Restaurant at the End of the Universe into Hungarian (as her object of research). As for the methodology, even though imaginative, all neologisms in the ST and their equivalents in the TL were identified before putting them into eight categories: Group 1 (comprising names of animals, plants, and various kinds of food and drinks); Group 2 (consisting of groups, institutions, organizations, companies, universities, etc); Group 3 (includes names of people and other living things); Group 4 (containing geographical terms, planets, stars, and cities); Group 5 (consisting of the types of life forms in Group 4); Group 6 (covering technical terms in space, musical instrument, weapons, electronic devices and new types of sports); Group 7 (includes colours, materials, historical events, theories, sciences, specific sciences, activities, jobs, price, title, units of measurement and currencies); Group 8 (includes slang, specific expressions and other kinds of forms). For each category of neologisms, it was only the first appearance of neologisms which was recorded due to practical reasons for collecting the data.
To answer the research question, she studied a variety of translation procedures applied by the translator as proposed by ( [17] p. 82). She did not only adapt a number of Newmark‘s types of neologisms but also some translation procedures suggested by [17], including [12], as follows: transference (i.e. ―… the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text …‖ ( [17] p. 81), transliteration (i.e. ―… cases where the graphological units of the SL name are replaced by TL graphological units …‖ ( [24] p. 93), naturalisation (i.e. ―… cases where the graphological units of the SL name are replaced by TL graphological units …‖ ( [24] p. 93), addition (i.e. by adding words, phrases, or sentences to the TT which are not mentioned in the ST, omission (i.e. due to differences in knowledge background between the ST readers and TT readers [12], compensation (i.e. ―… when loss of meaning sound-effect, metaphor or pragmatic effect in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part, or in a contiguous sentence…‖ ( [17] p. 90), semantic translation ( [17] used the terminology ‗transparent translation‘). Procedures are used to translate cultural terms in the SL so that they are understandable within the context of TL.) and total transformation ( [24] p. 94 used the term modification, that is,
―the process of choosing for the TL name a TL substitute which is logically, or conventionally, unrelated or only partly related to the original‖; whereas ( [8] p. 8) called it modulation, as a translation technique, indicated by different point of view. However, [24] used a different term which is translational operations. Other experts in translation studies used different terms for the procedures ( [17] p. 82), [13] p. 167) and [24] p. 89 used the term operations. Other scholars used the terms techniques and strategies.
A question that can be put forward at this point is Why it
is so important to study neologisms, or the creation of new
terms in Indonesian? To answer this question, a study was
conducted after observing several aspects of neologisms that
have not been completely covered in the GOEITT. By
referring to the acknowledgement of the program, in terms of the methodology, there are at least three major aspects that become the main concern of this research: (1) those who were involved in the development of the GOEITT did not represented all relevant stakeholders in the development or language planning, as highlighted in the Introduction section; (2) corpus planning, especially Economics, that might still not meet the standard criteria or categories in designing a corpus for the sake of creating English-Indonesia terms ( [5] p. 125, [3] and [18] pp. 45−56); (3) newly-invented technical terms, which are not available in the GOEITT, need to be added to the first edition of the glossary so that it becomes more and more complete. The GOEITT (1st edition) only contains 182,415 technical terms. In other words, an alternative methodology has been introduced in this research which aims to give scientific responses, based on corpus- based empirical evidence, to the three aspects mentioned above, particularly how those English-Indonesian technical terms in Economics were created by professional translators. This is due to the fact that they are actually stakeholders who should have been involved in the development of creating new technical terms within the context of language planning in Indonesia.
Theoretically and empirically, translation activities done
by professionals can positively contribute to the creation of
new terms in Indonesian. By using the existing lexical items
in Indonesian, new combinations of words with new meanings can be created. For example, the phrase deadweight

loss in Economics was translated into Indonesian as kerugian beban baku (i.e. loss that a company or a person suffered from due to imposed taxes). The Indonesian new term was created from three existing lexical units, that is, kerugian (literally: loss), beban (literally: burden) and baku (literally: fixed); the word kerugian (loss) as a noun in Indonesian is defined as perihal rugi as in the sentence ... kerugian perusahaan itu telah teratasi (literally: ... the company‘s loss has been returned). The word beban (burden) in the Complete Indonesian Dictionary/Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (2003) is defined as barang (yg berat) yg dibawa/dipikul/dijunjung) (literally: heavy things placed on one‘s shoulder or head) . The word baku (fixed) as a noun in the dictionary is defined as: pokok, utama (literally: main, major). Such phenomenon of creating the new term is called neologism. The next research question to ask in this respect is how far neologisms, as a positive impact of translation, can give contribution to Indonesian?

3. Methodology

The research methodology consists of three parts: method, data collection and data processing. As regards the method of reasoning, the inductive approach has been applied in order to observe the occurrence of language patterns in the parallel corpus (i.e. the ST subcorpus and the TT subcorpus), especially those phenomena related to neologisms, before drawing some generalizations. To obtain the data for analysis, a parallel corpus has been designed that comprises two parts: first, the ST which contains a collection of

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electronic files in the field of Economics; second, the TT
which has the Indonesian translated text in the same form.
Having obtained both types of subcorpus – the ST
subcorpus having 1,528,148 running words and the TT
subcorpus having 1,565,285, the next stage was creating a list
of keywords found in both types of corpus. By using a
computer software called WordSmith Tools versi 5.0, a list of
keywords was created. The list was obtained by comparing
the list of words found in the study corpus with a list of
words available in a referent corpus (i.e. the British National
Corpus). Even though the ST was written in the American
English, using the British National Corpus (BNC) seemed to have two advantages: (1) it is more practical, compared to the American National Corpus (ANC 2nd Release) with the html format, as it uses the txt format and is also bigger than
the ANC as it contains around 100 millions of words in comparison with the ANC which only has around 14 millions of words. The ratio between the two (i.e. the study corpus and the referent corpus) is 1 : 5, as practised in many Corpus Linguistics research. [20] The selection of the keywords was limited up to 500 words having the frequency of occurances of at least 200.
By making use of the keywords, neologisms occurred in the ST were identified, particularly collocations and acronyms. In further research, the identification of neologisms in the ST could be extended to all the keywords
in the list so that the research findings would be more comprehensive. This in the end would certainly enrich or enlarge the database of the GOEITT. The identification of collocations was only restricted to the shorter range of collocational pattern, that is, L1 + Node + R1, which was frequently found in Economics textbooks, including some acronyms, as also raised by [16]. A comparative analysis was then carried out on the next stage to study translator‘s preference in choosing ST neologism equivalents in the translated text (TT).

4. Results and Discussions

This section presents some results of identifying neologisms in both types of corpus (the ST and the TT), followed by a discussion or justification for the findings.

4.1. Identifying Neologisms in the ST and the TT

After statistically processing the data, or the ST subcorpus in the form of wordlist and also a wordlist taken from the referent corpus (BNC), a list of keywords in the ST was produced, as seen from Table 3 below. Statistical data in column 3 and 4 of Table 3 refers to the ST subcorpus while the data in column 6 and 7 refers to the referent corpus (i.e. the British National Corpus /BNC).
TABLE 3
A LIST OF KEYWORDS IN ECONOMICS TEXTS (ST)

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As seen from the extract of keywords shown in Table 3, all the keywords have high Keyness Index which indicates a mutual relation between those words in the ST subcorpus and with those words in BNC as a referent corpus. The first five keywords in the ST having the highest level of Keyness Index are: PRICE (Keyness: 14727.7), DEMAND (Keyness:
10232.5), SUPPLY (Keyness: 9627.1), INCOME (Keyness:
8462.4), and LABOR (Keyness: 7247.5.
Due to limited amount of time available, only five
keywords were used to elicit the occurrences of neologisms.
If it is necessary, further research may focus comprehensively
on the identification of all neolgisms in the ST. By using the
concordance software, authentic samples of neologisms
related to those keywords, particularly collocations and
acronyms, were obtained. Identification was only restricted
to those neologisms which are not available in the GOEITT,
especially the collocational pattern L1 + Node + R1 that has the strongest collocational strength, compared to those collocational patterns with the range, or span of L2-L4 and R2-R4. [22]
After processing the data involving the ST subcorpus, the next statistical procedure was to create a list of keywords on the basis of the TT subcorpus, as shown in Table 4. By using a separate Indonesian monolingual corpus I developed myself, five keywords with the highest Keyness Index were identified: HARGA (price) with the Keyness Indeks of 4031.8, PENDAPATAN (income) with the Keyness Indeks of 2675.9, PAJAK (tax) with the Keyness Indeks of 2661.4, BIAYA (cost) with the Keyness Indeks of 2399,4), and PASAR (market) with the Keyness Indeks of 2213.5. An interesting phenomenon that came up is that the word PRICE, as a keyword in the ST subcorpus and its equivalent in the TT subcorpus (i.e. HARGA), come first on each list. Thus, as an empirical evidence for this research, it is scientifically reasonable to use it as one of the keywords, or keyword in context/KWIC (among others) to identify the use of neologisms in both the ST subcorpus and the TT subcorpus by making use of WordSmith Tools version 5.0.
TABLE 4
A LIST OF KEYWORDS IN THE TT SUBCORPUS

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The statistical data in column 3 and 4 of Table 5 refers to the TT subcorpus, whereas the data in column 5 and 6 refers to the referent corpus, that is, an Indonesian bilingual corpus. Based on the statistical data in Table 3 and Table 4, a supplementary glossary to the GOEITT, including acronyms, have been developed with the focus on the collocational pattern L1 + Node + R1, as provided in Appendices 1 to 6.

4.2. Discussions

Empirical research findings related to the translation of neologisms in economics texts in this paper were based on a corpus approach. The parallel corpus (the ST and the TT) was dynamically designed and contains a number of economics texts. The analysis of forming English-Indonesian economics terms through professional translation activities is expected to widen stakeholder‘s understanding of the Indonesian language planning. The stages of creating English-Indonesian technical terms through corpus planning, as a methodology, empirically proves to be an alternative way of enriching the collection of technical terms in the GOEITT published by the National Language Development Agency (Badan Bahasa) of the Ministry of National Education, especially English- Indonesian economics terms.
Within the context of language planning in Indonesia, the parallel corpus which contains electronic files was taken from various sources associated with some basic sciences and should be dynamic in nature, rather than static like the BNC. This means that it is necessary to make efforts to periodically enlarge the size of the corpus concerned. As a result, the number of English-Indonesian terms available in the glossary will get bigger and bigger. This in turn will certainly have a good impact on the glossary itself in terms of its quality, as it has a larger capacity to accommodate the users‘ needs and enable them to catch up with new development in science and technology. The process of developing the dynamic and sustainable corpus will make Indonesian, as a national language, more modern because it will continually adapt to newly created terms in various fields, including Economics, partly through professional translation activities.
Appendices 1-6 show some empirical findings of this research on neologisms. It proves that the application of a different methodology in terms of the methods used (whether inductive and deductive one), the corpus designed or collected, the neologisms identified or processed, particularly collocations and acronyms, would come up with slightly different research findings. By using the inductive method, the use of neologisms (e.g. collocational patterns) in the corpus of particular sciences is observed, whereas the deductive method begins with identifying neologisms in the glossary provided at the back of a textbook without making use of tools for statistical analysis available in a corpus linguistic software like WordSmith Tools version 5.0, or other
concordance software. These findings will re-enforce and also complete other similar research conducted beforehand, like the making of GOEITT, which in some respects still has weaknesses regarding the methodology employed, especially concerning the way the parallel corpus was designed and processed.
However, some types of neologisms, particularly certain patterns of collocation have not yet been accommodated in the Glossary of English-Indonesian Terms; for instance the following collocational patterns such as Verb + Noun (as in distort prices), or Noun + Verb (as in prices rise), or Noun + Noun (as in export prices and price discrimination). Neologisms presented in the glossary concerned are mainly restricted to the pattern like Adjective + Noun (as in domestic price) even though this has not yet been fully comprehensive. Other patterns or terms, such as real income (penghasilan riil and penghasilan nyata in Indonesian), negative income (pendapatan negatif in Indonesian), and expected income (pendapatan harapan in Indonesian), should have been included in the glossary as well. See lists of supplementary glossaries to GOEITT in Appendices 1−6 which have not yet been accomodated in the GOEITT; however such collocational pattern as Adjective + Noun has a high frequency of occurances in the corpus. One of the reasons why those collocational patterns should be incorporated into the glossary program is that collocations as found in the ST subcorpus (i.e. English) are considered as one important parts of neologisms, or the creation of English- Indonesian terms.
Another interesting finding that came up during the
analysis of the data has to do with the pattern Noun + Noun, as in stock prices. A comparative analysis involving the ST and the TT proves that the equivalent harga-harga saham (literally: the prices of stock) in the TT subcorpus was chosen by the translator and this is completely acceptable to the grammatical rules of Indonesian. However, this translation
seems to be restricted by the English plural forms – stock

prices. Nevertheless, the word stock (rather than in a

combination with other words) in the GOEITT belongs to
Finance, which is basically part of Economics. In other words,
the empirical evidence proves that the use of corpus
approach in the development of the GOEITT can thoroughly
elicit those language patterns that occur in the corpus or a collection of texts of certain fields and which might not be detected in the previous data processing.
Translators normally have their own style or language taste which is an important factor in modernizing a language through neologisms. This is reflected in their translation in which various alternative equivalents for neologisms in the ST were chosen. ‗Consistency‘ and ‗alternative equivalents‘ are two debatable phenomena of using neologisms, at least from the translation critic point of view. In the literature of translation studies, this is called translator’s choice or translator’s preference. Consistency refers to the translator‘s

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choice, that is, how ―faithful‖ a translator is in using neologisms in his translation. Once he chose the phrase harga keseimbangan as an equivalent for the English phrase equilibrium price, he would use the same standardized equivalent in other parts of his own translation.
On the other hand, alternative equivalents are closely linked to a number of available equivalents for neologisms that the translator can choose from. The alternative equivalents within the context of professional translation activities are likely to be a logical consequence of using a translation method and/or translation techniques. Still, this needs to go through a standardized process. In addition, along the history of creating neologisms in Indonesian in association with certain disciplines, it is often criticised by target readers that there is no consistency among translators in choosing or using equivalents for technical terms in translated texts. To put it more simply, there have not been adequate numbers of standardized equivalents available that translators can turn to as a reference or guidance.
The existence of the GOEITT produced by the National Language Development Agency (Badan Bahasa) gives a response to the above needs even though it is still at its early stage. This is of course not the end of it. The effort to create new English-Indonesian terms needs to be continued and extended in the future towards other sciences. For example, this research shows that different translators rendered neologisms in the ST into the TT in the form of different equivalents, as seen from Table 5.
Language users from different cultural background often have different cognitive experiences which in fact have implication for the creation of neologisms in Indonesian. Take, for example, the concept of ‘price‘ in English which normally associates with the concepts of ‘low-high‘, as in low price and high price. Identification of language patterns in the ST subcorpus proves that translation activities have enriched the Indonesian language patterns.

TABLE 5

NEOLOGISMS IN ECONOMICS (ENGLISH-INDONESIAN)

For example, the phrase low price is equivalent to two Indonesian phrases, that is, harga murah (literally: price cheap) and harga rendah (literally: price low); whereas in the case of high price, two other phrases, harga mahal (literally: price expensive) and harga tinggi (literally: price high), are acceptable equivalents in Indonesian; they are original Indonesian collocational patterns.
Collocational patterms with wider range (e.g. the pattern L3 + L2 + L1 + Node as in allocation of net income rendered as alokasi pendapatan bersih in Indonesian) are constructed or developed on the basis of shorter range of collocational patterns (e.g. the pattern L1 + Node as in the phrase net income rendered as pendapatan bersih in Indonesian). Both ranges of collocational patterns should have been integrated into the program of the GOEITT. Since the term or pattern net income in the ST subcorpus has a relatively high frequency of occurences, it is quite reasonable to include the same term based on the collocational pattern and its equivalent in Indonesian in the GOEITT. In other words, the corpus approach gives more emphasis on the frequency of occurrences of a technical term in a given corpus, whereas the compilation of new terms done manually might simply be based on a limited glossary provided at the back of a textbook, or a dictionary of technical terms.
Some research findings in this research were initially unpredictable. To begin with, the pattern L1 + Node + R1 (as seen in Appedices 1−6), which has a fairly high frequency of occurances in the ST subcorpus, has not yet been all accommodated in the GOEITT of the National Language Development Agency (Badan Bahasa). The glossary concerned seems to pay more attention to neologisms, or collocations with longer range of patterns, that is, up to L4 and R4.
The use of neologisms, or a number of technical terms, was not only found in a couple of basic sciences, but aslo in other basic sciences. For example, the term equilibrium price or market-clearing price are classified into Fisheries and Politics in the GOEITT. Yet, the same terms were also found in the economic translated texts (the TT). The TT subcorpus presents two equivalents for the term equilibrium price − harga ekuilibrium (literally: price equilibrium) and harga keseimbangan (literally: price balace) in Indonesian. The phenomenon of those alternative aquivalents is closely related to the ideology of translation strategies, or transation methods, or translation techniques used by the translators who might be in favour of the SL rather than the TL, or the other way round. In addition to this, the translation aim, or skopos, would also determine the equivalents chosen by the translators, or a team of translators as requested by the commissioner. A more surprising neologism phenomenon was the term harga keseimbangan in Finance, which is the translation for the English phrase parity price. The availability of English-Indonesian terms that might be used in different basic sciences needs to be pooled in a separate matrix, or list so that the users of the glossary can use each of the terms correctly when they deal with a particular basic science.
The data analysis also indicates that translators pay more
attention to the ST. Economic neologisms in the ST were
creatively rendered into Indonesian as the TL without the
risk of loosing the meaning in the ST. Nonetheless, the target
readers‘ needs should also be taken into consideration. In
other words, the results of the analysis shows an application
of norms in translation (i.e. translational norms). Both literal
and faithful translation as methods of translation were
employed by the translators.

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5. Conclusion

Research on neologisms discussed in this paper is intended to offer an alternative methodology with which linguists can investigate neologisms, or the creation of foreign-Indonesian terms in Economics, as translated by professionals. The research findings were specifically based on a corpus approach, particularly neologisms associated with collocations and acronyms whose occurences are significantly dominant in the parallel corpus. It is expected that newly invented neologisms could be added to the existing GOEITT of the National Language Development Agency (Badan Bahasa), especially in the section of Economics, which have not been included in the glossary concerned.
Research on neologism translation highlighted in this paper has two major weaknesses. First, due to limited amount of time available, the identification of neologisms in the parallel corpus could not be carried out comprehensively for all the keywords in the economics texts. Second, all of the texts compiled in the study corpus were only taken from a few branches of Economics, such as Microeconomics, Macroeconomics, Management and Economic Development.
Further research needs to be conducted on a bigger
corpus. This can be done by adding some more electronic
texts taken from other branches of Economics, such as Accounting and Business. Thus, the two main criteria, representativeness and coverage, in designing or developing the dynamic corpus can be fulfilled. Additionally, the identification of neologism in the bigger and more comprehensive ST subcorpus of Economics needs to be extended towards other keywords, such as MARKET, COST, GOODS, GROWTH, CAPITAL, ECONOMY, TAX, VALUE, DEVELOPMENT, MANAGER, INFLATION, UNEMPLOYMENT, REVENUE, GDP, etc (See Table 3 and 4 for a list of keywords in economics text, both the ST and the TT). Identifying the occurences of neologism in the corpus concerned involving all the keywords in economics text (the ST and the TT) would certainly enhance both the quantity and the quality of the GOEITT of the National Language Development Agency (Badan Bahasa) as a whole, and the glossary of English-Indonesian economic terms in particular. If this methodology were applied to other basic sciences, applied sciences, and humanities, it will enrich the collection of bilingual technical terms in the GOEITT produced by the National Language Developement Agency (Badan Bahasa).

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ISSN 2229-5518

Appendices

Appendice 1

A Supplementary Glossary to the GOEITT Based-on the
Keyword PRICE
imperfect price
highest price distorted price affected price neoclassical price price allocation established price price double
price type
monopolist‘s price
farm price asset price premium price price inelasticity

harga yang tidak sempurna

harga tertinggi distorsi harga

harga terkena dampak harga neoklasik

alokasi harga

harga yang berlaku harga ganda

jenis harga

harga monopoli; harga monopolistik

harga peternakan harga asset

harga premium kekakuan harga

Appendice 2

A Supplementary Glossary to the GOEITT Based-on the
Keyword DEMAND

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domestic demand permintaan domestik

Appendice 3

A Supplementary Glossary to the GOEITT Based-on the
Keyword SUPPLY

Appendice 4

A Supplementary Glossary to the GOEITT Based-on the
Keyword INCOME
individual income additional income permanent income
current income negative income expected income
rural income operating income upper income
annual income income inequalities extra income income redistribution income elastisities income gains consumers income
relative income
normal income
disposable
income
investment
income
functional
income
nation‘s income
income equality income index aggregate income income gap income shares redistributing income
income distribution growing income income shift constant income income accounting income status positive income state income book income lifetime income traditional income
small income income generation

pendapatan individual pendapatan tambahan pendapatan tetap

pendapatan sekarang pendapatan negatif pendapatan yang

diharapankan pendapatan desa pendapatan operasi pendapatan lebih

tinggi/besar

pendapatan tahunan ketimpangan pendapatan pendapatan tambahan

distribusi pendapatan elastisitas pendapatan

perolehan pendapatan

pendapatan konsumen

pendapatan relatif pendapatan normal pendapatan disposabel

pendapatan investasi pendapatan fungsional pendapatan negara

persamaan pendapatan

indeks pendapatan pendapatan agregat kesenjangan pendapatan pembagian pendapatan redistribusi pendapatan

distribusi pendapatan pertumbuhan pendapatan

pergeseran pendapatan pendapatan konstan pendapatan akuntansi

status pendapatan pendapatan positif pendapatan negara pendapatan buku pendapatan seumur hidup pendapatan tradisional

pendapatan kecil/rendah mengahsilkan pendapatan

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highest income income class income recipients consumer‘s income
family‘s income
improved income income LCDS
women‘s income rental income income stream income components country‘s income world‘s income dividend income factors income income flows minimum income
income support income inequality

pendapatan tertinggi kelompok pendapatan penerima pendapatan pendapatan konsumen

pendapatan keluarga pendapatan yang

meningkat pendapatan golongan/ kaum miskin pendapatan wanita pendapatan rental aliran pendapatan komponen pendapatan

pendapatan negara pendapatan dunia pendapatan dividen pendapatan faktor aliran pendapatan pendapatan minimum/minimal penunjang pendapatan

ketimpangan pendapatan

human labor cheap labor labor laws
organized labor labor ratio productive labor labor migration
adult labor labor standards large labor
labor transfer classical labor labor relations family labor excess labor women‘s labor farm labor female labor
local labor
economy‘s labor

Appendice 6

tenaga kerja manusia tenaga kerja yang murah undang-undang

ketenagakerjaan buruh terorganisir rasio tenaga kerja tenaga kerja produktif migrasi/perpindahan

tenaga kerja

buruh dewasa standar tenaga kerja tenaga kerja dalam jumlah besar

transfer tenaga kerja

tenaga kerja klasik hubungan tenaga kerja tenaga kerja keluarga kelebihan tenaga kerja tenaga kerja wanita tenaga kerja perkebunan tenaga kerja/buruh wanita

tenaga kerja lokal ekonomi tenaga kerja

Appendice 5

A Supplementary Glossary to the GOEITT Based-on the
Keyword LABOR

A Supplementary Glossary to the GOEITT Based-on Some
Acronyms

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FOMC (Federal Open Market Committee) CFROI (cashflow return on investment)
NOPAT (net of profit after tax)
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)
FGV ( (Future
Growth Value) MBO ( Management Buyout)
LMC (Lower Middle
Income)
NPV (Net Present
Value)
PPP (Purchasing
Power Parity)
ATC (Average Total
Cost)
CPI (consumer price
index)
CFO (cashflow from
operation)
GAAP (generally
accepted accounting
principles )
NAFTA North
American Free Trade
Agreement
GATT (General
Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade MPC (marginal propensity to consume)
CVA (Cash Value
Added)
FDI (foreign direct investment)

Komite Pasar Terbuka

Federal

arus kas pengembalian atas investasi

laba operasi sesudah pajak

Organisasi Negara-negara

Pengekspor Minyak

nilai pertumbuhan mendatang

pembelian manajemen

pendapatan menengah bawah

nilai sekarang bersih indikator paritas daya beli biaya total rata-rata

indeks harga konsumen arus kas dari operasi

prinsip akuntansi yang secara umum diterima

Perjanjian Perdagangan

Bebas Amerika Utara

Perjanjian Umum tentangTarif dan Perdagangan

kecenderungan konsumsi marginal

nilai tambah kas penanaman modal asing

(PMA) secara langsung

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