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Islamic Azad University

Ahar Branch

Faculty of Humanities

The Investigation of Differential Effects of Recasts and Prompts on Speaking Performance of Male and Female EFL Learners

Supervisor:

Dr. Karim Nazari Bagha

Co-supervisor:

Dr. Malahat Shabany

By:

Roya GHolizade

Winter 2013

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IN HIS SUBLIME

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Acknowledgements

It takes a village to arise a child (African proverb). It is the same thing when writing a thesis. To complete such a research, you need a whole village: family, friends and colleagues. First, I am grateful and thankful to Allah the Almighty for His helpful and endless support in enlightening the path of knowledge for me all the way from my childhood to this point of my life. This body of research would not have been possible without the individual and institutional support that I received. I take this opportunity to formally thank those who have made this possible. I am indebted to Dr. Araghi, Dr. Zoghi, Dr. Asadi, Dr. Davatgary, Dr. Torabi and Professor Rahimpour, whose warm support, cheerful encouragement and genuine guidance during M.A have been deeply appreciated. If I am here, it is because of your unaffected efforts. Also, I would like to express my immense gratitude to Dr. Zoghi.It was the last days of term four, when most of my classmates' proposal was accepted by the committee members, but my proposal had rejected. That days, I was very confused, anxious and distressed. But it was Dr. Zoghi that gave me a hand of help. He has potentially guided me, throughout the proposal writing. I am thankful, for his precious advice, insightful comments, invaluable guidance, and thoughtful suggestions. He was not my supervisor or advisor, but he helped me. He is one of the kind-hearted angle in my life. Then, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Karim Nazary Bagha for his professional advice and comments, and I am also thankful to my advisor, Dr. Mallahat Shabany for his real motivation and encouragement through this study.
Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my parents who have made all of this possible. Not a single word could have been written without their endless love, moral and financial support. I owe them absolutely everything. Ironically, they always known exactly when, how, and which feedback to give me.
God Bless All of You.

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Abstract

The merits of instruction based on feedback have been widely debated and investigated in language classrooms. Consequently, the last ten years witnessed a steady increase in the number of studies that have examined the effects of corrective feedback on L2 speaking performance. This includes both descriptive and experimental research examining a wide range of variables (e.g., type and amount of feedback, mode of feedback, learner's language proficiency level, instructional context, and attitudes towards feedback). One of the relevant variables in corrective feedback studies which seem to be less operationalized is the differential impact of prompts and recasts on the male and female's accuracy, complexity and fluency aspects of speaking performance of participants. Therefore, the present research aimed to investigate the differential impact of prompts and recasts on speaking performance of male and female EFL learners. To do so, based on proficiency test, 120 participants were selected and randomly divided in six equal homogenous groups namely four experimental (A1=male-recast A2=female-recast B1=male-prompt B2=female-prompt) and two control groups (C1=male C2=female). The experimental groups received recasts and prompts instruction of speaking while the control groups continued traditional speaking instruction without feedback. The statistical and systematic analysis of data, were obtained and the results showed that, there is significant difference between impact of recasts and prompts but there is not any difference between the performance of males and females.

Key Words: Corrective Feedback, Recast, Prompt, Uptake, Speaking Performance.

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ABBRIVIATIONS

CAF: Complexity, Accuracy, Fluency

CF: Corrective Feedback

EFL: English as Foreign Language ESL: English as Second Language FMC: Form-Meaning Connection F on F: Focus on Form

IL: Interlanguage

L: Learner

L1: First Language

L2: Second Language

NNS: Non Native Language

NS: Native Speaker

SCT: Socio Cultural Theory

SLA: Second Language Acquisition

T: Teacher

TL: Target Language

ZDP: Zone of Proximal Development

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Introduction

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1.1. Introduction

The researcher structured the study in different chapters. The first chapter included introduction that involved background of the study, statement of the problem and described the research questions & research hypotheses under investigation then significance of the study, definitions of the main terms and limitations of the study are described.

1.2. Background of the Study

In the last few years of the twenties century, methods were no longer the object of search; instead teachers and curriculum developers were searching for valid communicative, interactive techniques suitable for specified learners pursuing specific goals in specific contexts. Communicative language teaching is best understood as an approach which pushes learners toward communication and is a broadly established theoretical position about the nature of language and of language learning and teaching. Communicative approach suggests that grammatical structure might be included well in various functional categories. In this approach, accuracy, complexity and fluency are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more important than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use but it can be encouraged at the expense of clear, unambiguous, direct communication. Focus on form and meaning – defined as any pedagogical effort to draw the learners' attention to language form and meaning either implicitly or explicitly – appeared as a solution (Brown, 2000; paraphrased in Javan Amani Z, 2009).
Corrective feedbacks as one of the effective focus on form and meaning techniques have long been employed in L2 classrooms. Learning requires feedback. Otherwise, the learners have no means of judging the extent and appropriateness of their learning (Chastain, p.394). Within the field of second language research (SLA), an increasing number of studies arefocusing on corrective feedback. Feedback is an important part of language pedagogy because through teacher's feedback students can know how far they have progressed and how they are doing. According to Ellis (1994), feedback serves as a general cover term for the information provided by listeners on the reception and comprehension of messages. There are many definitions from many researchers about feedback but in general, all of them indicate that, ''Corrective feedback, the reactive component of form-focused instruction, is
one way learners' attention can be drawn to the formal properties of the target language'' and

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''an indication to the learner that his or her use of the target language is incorrect''.(Doughty
& Williams, 1998; Lightbown, 1998; long & Robinson, 1998; Lyster, Lightbown & Spada,
1999; Mackey, Gass & McDonough, 2000;Russel & Spada, 2006; Ortega & Long, 1997). Williams (2001) summarized the importance of research on corrective feedback by saying that its central goal is to ascertain whether corrective feedback promotes L2 learning, and if so, what features or types of feedback lead to the greatest gains in L2 learning. Thus, while some studies have examined a wide range of types of corrective feedback (e.g., Loewen,
2005; Lyster & Ranta, 1997; Panova & Lyster, 2002), others have focused their attention on one or two types of corrective feedback (e.g., Ammar & Spada, 2006; Carpenter, Leon, MacGrrgor & Macky, 2006; Iwashita, 2003, Lyster, 2004; Loewen & Philp, 2006).
Teachers and researchers probably agree that the most appropriate and effective type of corrective feedback is the one which offers conditions to help learners notice their errors, understand them and incorporate the correct target language versions in theirinter-language. In addition to recast which is the most frequently used feedback, six different corrective feedback strategies have been identified: explicit correction, clarification requests, meta- linguistic information, elicitation, repetition, and translation (Lyster & Ranta, 1997; Panova
& Lyster, 2002). All of these techniques are placed in an explicit-implicit continuum.Recasts and prompts have been known as two effective feedback treatments that occur in the course of interaction to deal with communication problems.

1-Recasts:Recasts ''involve the teacher's reformulation of all or part of a student's utterance, minus the error''. Recasts are generally implicit, as they dose not point out the error by saying 'I think you want to say''. Or ''Do not say that but …''. However, some recasts become explicit, if they only provide the correct word, or if the reformulation emphasized the correction.

Example: (from Mackey et al., 2003, p.37)
NNS: And in the er kitchen er cupboard no on shef
NS: On the shelf. I have it on the shelf. NNS: In the shelf, yes ok.

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2-Prompts:In prompts, one interlocutor, usually the more competent person, attempts to ''push'' the other towards the production of a more correct utterance. This implies that both participants actively deal with a problem and that the learner is stimulated to self-repair (Van den Branden, 1997:592). Students modify their erroneous responses instead of being immediately provided with the correct form by the teacher. (Lyster 2007:108). Clarification requests, repetition of the error, elicitation, and meta-linguistic clues are classified under the category ''prompt''.

Example: (from Mackey, 2006, p.405) NNS: Here and then the left.
NS: Sorry?
NNS: Ah here and one ah where one of them on the left.
NS: Yeah one's behind the table and then the others on the left of the table.
Recast has been the focus of a large number of studies (e.g., Ammar, 2008; Ammar
& Spada, 2006; Doughty & Varela, 1998; Ellis et al, 2001; Ellis et al, 2006; Han, 2002b; Iwashita, 2003; Leowen & Philp, 2006; Lyster, 2004; Lyster & Izquierdo, 2009; Lyster & Mori, 2006). These studies rendered different results some in favor of and some against the efficacy of recasts. There is also evidence from empirical studies showing that recasts are less noticeable than other types of corrective feedback (Ammar, 2008; Ammar & Spada,
2006; R.Ellis,2007; R.Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2007; R.Ellis, Zoewen& Erlam, 2006; Lyster, 2004; Sheen, 2007; Yang & Lyster, 2010). These studies compared recasts with other types of corrective feedback such as prompts that ''withhold correct forms and instead offer learners an opportunity to self-repair by generating their own modified response'' (Lyster,
2004; p. 405), and showed that learners who received recasts did not improve test scores as much as learners who received prompting types of feedback.
This study can help researchers better understand oral corrective feedback in teaching and learning setting. So far, a great number of studies were done to investigate the efficacy of corrective feedback but the influence on students' gender is in short. Thus this study will take a special look at prompts and recasts as corrective feedback during speaking
performance and how they compare with each other when the accuracy, fluency, and

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complexity of speaking is considered as an important aspects of speaking performance and speaking proficiency.

1.3.Statement of the Problem

Teachers have a responsibility to help the learners through the feedback process gain more confidence in order to gain meaningful knowledge and enhance their knowledge development. While a great many studies have investigated the relationships among error types, feedback types, learner uptake, and inter-language development, few have sought to determine whether learners actually notice the language forms and meaning used in the recasts and prompts employed by their interlocutors.
Studies carried out to date now have shown that recasts have the most frequently used techniques in the language classroom (Braidi, 2002; Ellis et al., 2001a; Iwashita, 2003; Lyster &Ranta, 1997; Panova & Lyster, 2002; Sheeb, 2004). Both classroom and laboratory research focusing on feedback has heavily explored recasts finding them to be more beneficial than other types of feedback.
Doughty (2001) investigates recasts and finds that recasts are the most effective means of incorporating feedback into a focus on form setting because they allow for a direct contrast between forms, the original incorrect student utterance and the teacher-provided correct form. Recasts are the most frequent type of feedback but probably the least effective ones. While some researchers have criticized them as inefficient, others have supported them as an unobtrusive type of feedback especially useful during interactive activities. Ellis and Sheen (2006) conclude that recasts may be beneficial if their corrective nature is in fact perceived and if they are intensively focused, assuming that the teacher is aware of the learners' levels of developmental readiness to acquire the new form.
Lyster (1998) claimed that recasts are not the most effective feedback in leading to correct use of the reformulated utterance andstudents are not able to self-repair or reformulate after a recast because the target-like form will have already been provided for them in the recast itself, however, because prompts do not provide the target-form, students do have the opportunity to reformulate or self repair (Lyster and Izquierdo, 2009). On the
other hand, according to Lyster and associates recasts in comparison with prompts- are less

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effective because teacher provides the correct form for learners and learners are not forced to modify their own utterance or to produce ''pushed out put''.
Regarding this point, prompts seem to have superiority over recasts. Additional research has also examined and found inherent problems recasts and have therefore explored other types of feedback. Lyster (2004) finds in favor of prompts, feedback moves that one devoid of correct forms but push learners to reformulate, over recasts. Prompts push learners implicitly to reformulate an erroneous utterance into a correct form so that opportunities are provided for self-repair whereas recasts involve other-generated repair.Prompts as an alternative type of feedback have been usually compared with recasts in classroom settings (Lyster, 2007). Prompts provide signals that stimulate learners to self-repair than providing them with a correct reformulation of their non-target utterance, as do recasts.
The last ten years have witnessed a steady increase in the number of studies that have examined the effects of corrective feedback on L2 learning. This includes both descriptive and experimental research examining a wide range of variables (e.g., type and amount of feedback, mode of feedback, learners' language proficiency level, instructional context, and attitudes towards feedback). One of the relevant variables in corrective feedback studies which seem to be less operationalized is the differential effect of different types of feedback on the accuracy of the speaking performance of the students. Therefore, the present research aimed to investigate the differential impact of prompts and recasts on the speaking performance with focus on CAF aspects of speaking of Iranian EFL students. Another aspect which not still been examined is whether gender, mediate the effects of recasts and prompts on L2 development. This study attempts to examine the effects of recasts and prompts and to know to what extent effectiveness of recasts and prompts are mediated by gender.Previous studies of recasts and prompts have found varying results, which has been frustrating for both researchers and teachers. Currently, the debate rages on as to whether recasts are beneficial or prompts, and if they are, to what extend and on which gender, male or female. As such, more research is needed in this area, and the present study addresses this need.
The role of gender is among the factors that require further investigation. Some researchers believe that females are better language performs in almost on the area of EFL learning (e.g., Ehriich, 1997). However, no simple answer has been formulated as to which feedback technique is more effective for males and females. In this regard, some researchers
advocate recasts as an effective and corrective feedback (CF) technique because they are

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implicit, unobtrusive, and contingent on the learners’ intended meaning (Doughty, 2001; Doughty &Varea, 1998; Leeman, 2003; Long, 1996; Oliver, 1995).
The main problem that exists in the area of corrective feedback is that most teachers are not aware of the effects of different types of feedbacks, which feedback is more suitable for which level? And which gender? They are not aware that, whether recast has more beneficial effect on speakers accuracy or fluency or complexity aspect of speaking or prompts? If there is any effect of prompts and recasts, to which aspect of speaking, these effects are more considerable and outstanding.The researcher in this study tries to give some reasonable answers to these questions and give some possible solutions to these problems.In sum, this study intends to determine whether it is possible to accurately predict the differential effects of recasts and prompts on students speaking accuracy, fluency, and complexity which are the main aspects of speaking proficiency, with the focus on gender, male or female.

1.4.Research Questions

This thesis investigates the following three research questions:
Q.1. Are there any significant differential effects of using recasts and prompts on male and female learner's speaking (CAF) performance?
Q.2. Which feedback strategy has more effect?
Q.3. Which group (male or female) benefits more from the feedback strategy?

1.5. Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses correspond to the research questions presented above.
H01. There is no significant differential impact of recasts and prompts on females’
speaking (CAF) performance.
H02. There is no significant differential impact of recasts and prompts on males’
speaking (CAF) performance.

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1.6. Significance of the Study

Corrective feedback is an extremely relevant, but controversial issue in SLA today. I wanted to provide data for EFL teachers and learners to gain better understanding of corrective feedbacks and which type is more effective for learner speaking proficiency and performance. As teacher gain a better understanding of which types of corrective feedback benefit students, the students receive more quality instruction and receive feedback that best contributes to speaking.
Focusing on two types of corrective feedback strategies in second language classrooms, namely recasts and prompts, the current research claims that the differential effectiveness of recasts and prompts is an area of great research value, for the following reasons, (1) theoretically, studies in this area can inform the issues such as the roles of input and output in second language and the cognitive roles of recasts and prompts in language learning, (2) pedagogically, research findings in this area may provide second language teachers with useful advice concerning theirs classroom error correction.

1.7. Definition of Key Terms

Corrective Feedback: Ellis et al., (2006) believe that corrective feedback takes the form of responses to learner utterances that contain an error. The responses can consist of (a) an indication that an error has been committed, (b) provision of the correct target language form, and (c) meta-linguistic information about the nature of the error, or any combination of these.

Prompts: Lyster (1981) defines prompts as teacher feedback more (such as elicitation, meta-linguistic clues, and clarification requests) that withholds correct reformulation and instead pushes learners to self-repair.

Recasts: Recast is the teacher's reformulation of all or part of the learner's utterance. Long defines recasts as the ''utterance that rephrases a child's utterance by changing one or more sentence components while still referring to its central meaning'' (Lyster,1981).

Communication Task: A classroom activity that involves learners in solving some sort of problem through using the target language. Learners' primary attention is focused on meaning or communication rather than form (Ellis, 2003).

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Uptake: Lyster and Ranta (1997a) state that uptake refers to different types of the learner's utterance that immediately follows received feedback, including responses with repair or non-target items as well as utterances still in need of repair.

Speaking Accuracy:Accuracy refers to how well the target language is produced in relation to the rule system of the target language (Ellis, 2005)

Speaking Complexity: Complexity is the extent to which learners produce elaborated language (Ellis, 2005).

Speaking Fluency: Fluency is the production of language in real time without undue pausing or hesitation(Ellis, 2005).

1.8. Limitations

This study might have some inherent limitations. The first limitation is the number of students who participated in the present study was relatively small. With 120 participants, whom completed all tasks, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions from the findings. In addition, this small number may have been responsible for the lack of significant findings on some of the measures. A large sample size would hopefully lead to significant findings and the results may be generalizable to a larger population of learners.The second limitation is that, not all types of recasts and prompts examined in the present study. No conclusions can be drawn regarding the benefits of any types of recasts and prompts that do not fall under the definition of recasts and prompts. Because all students did not reflect positive attitude to all type of prompts and recasts, so I was obliged to use the prompts and recasts that students reflected positive attitude to them. The third limitation is that students were all intermediate, so the findings may not be applied to learners of different levels. Thus, the findings are not replicable to all learning contexts.More varied measurement tools- measures of uptake and learner repair and learner perception/noticing of corrective feedback by means of stimulated recall- should be included in research designs.The other limitations were related to the lack of enough instruments and also space and curriculum of the participants according to
institute curriculum. As always, further research is needed.

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Methodology

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3.1. Introduction

This research followed an experimental design in order to test for the differential effects of recasts and prompts on students speaking CAF. This chapter gives a detaileddescription about the present research, procedures used to collect and analysis the data and how it was conducted. It presents the background information of the participants, methodological approach, instruments and data collection proceduresand research design. An overview of the researchdesign of this experimental study follows: participants PET test, pre- test, a week before the instructional treatment began, task based treatment sessions, immediate post-test four week later (immediate following the final feedback sessions), and delayed post-test three weeks after the immediate post-test. Each testing sessions entails oral production measures. A pilot study with 41 students was conducted before the main study to test the procedure. The results from the pilot study were used to make small adjustments to the procedure, as discussed in the various sections below. The data from the pilot study was not included in the analysis and results discussed.

3.2. Participants

The population from which the participants were selected for this study included Iranian male and female EFL learners, who enrolled in language institute of Pishgaman and Asatir in Ardebi. Because I needed more participants and because I needed four experimental groups and two control groups, I had to use of two Institute students. To began data collection, almost all the students at the intermediate levels of English were initially considered to participate in the study. Almost, about 200 students who had voluntarily agreed to take part in this study was male and female students whose age range was fifteen and twenty. The selection of participants was motivated by the fact that learners at this level have relatively low proficiency but have generally acquired enough English to allow them to participate in meaning-oriented interaction. After determining their age, sex, and language proficiency level, these 200 students were chosen to take part in the study. Based on their scores on PET exam, 120 students were selected as homogenous subjects. This PET exam was designed and established by the Language Center at Oxford University.
The participants were, then randomly assigned to six equal groups, each containing twenty students. Group A1, consisted of twenty male as an experimental, labeled recast
group, A2 consisted of twenty female as an experimental, labeled recast group, and B1

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twenty male as an experimental, labeled prompt group and B2, consisted of twenty female as an experimental, label prompt group, and group C1, twenty male as a control group and the last, group C2, twenty female as a control group. The experimental group exposed to two kinds of treatment (recasts for recast groups, and prompts for prompt groups) and control group without any treatment.

3.3. Instrumentation

A variety of data collection instruments were used throughout the data collection process to answer to the research questions, and these are discussed below:

3.3.1. Language Proficiency Test

To make sure that the participants in the six groups belonged to the same population in terms of language proficiency level and homogeneity, the researcher utilized the proficiency test PET (A preliminary English Test) which is a second level Cambridge ESOL exam for the intermediate level learners. The test consisted of four sections: the first section was a test of reading with 35items. The second section included a test of writing with 8 questions. The listening and speaking sections each included four parts. Those participants who received less than 50 out of 65 were considered not to have the necessary proficiency level to take part in the study.

3.3.2 Pre-test

In pre-test the researcher used three tasks. In task one, sets of pictures were used to elicit conversation and utterances from the participants through pictorial story completion.In pictorial story completion task, participants were presented with a pictorial story. Pictures narrating a short story were shown in sequence, one by one. The task two was story telling from L1 to L2 which this story was (ﻮ�ﮕﻏﻭﺭﺩ ﻥﺎ�ﭘﻮﭼ) lair shepherd. Task three was giving a topic and conversation about it, which this topic in this research was generation gap.The pre- test has a time pressure of 15 minutes for each participant. The rational for providing the participants with limited time to answer was derived from the discussion in Ellis (2001)
about the necessity of establishing congruity between implicit knowledge and the tests measuring it. Ellis believed that tests which focus on discrete linguistic forms and allow
unlimited response time may favor the use of learners' explicit L2 knowledge. In contrast,

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tests which involve spontaneous production focusing on meaning or which allow learners limited response time may encourage learners to draw on their implicit L2 knowledge. Students were provided with vocabularies that they did not know or they had forgotten.

3.3.3. Treatment

I used two kind of treatment. The first was recasts for groups A1 and A2, and prompts for groups of B1 and B2. The aim of these treatments was to show any differential effects of recasts and prompts on participants speaking accuracy, fluency and complexity. Treatments took place over four weeks and began on the second week of the study. Each of the four treatment sessions lasted approximately one hour in length and consisted of three speaking elicitation tasks. The three treatment tasks were similar in design to the pre-test task but with different topics and different stories (according to the topics and stories that existed in the course book), and also, the treatment tasks differed from the pre-test task in that the teachers provided a form of feedback (prompts or recasts), depend on the group label, to the experimental groups in response to ill-formed speaking and utterances.

3.3.4. Course Textbook

The course book (Interchange 3rdEdition ): Interchange 3rd edition is a fully revised edition of New Interchange. Each unit includes up-to-date content, additional grammar practice, and more opportunities to develop speaking and listening skills. Interchange Third Edition is written in American English, but reflects the fact that English is the major language of international communication, and is not limited to any country. The philosophy of the series is that English is best learned when used for meaningful communication.

3.3.5. Immediate Post-test and Delayed Post-test

The immediate post-test was held immediately after the last session. And delayed post test was held three weeks after the immediate post-test.

3.4. Procedure

Since the researchers needed to select and homogenize the participants of the study, they first embarked on piloting PET with students at the intermediate level. Once the test was modified following the piloting (details of which appear in the result section of this

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research), it was administered to the 200 target participants described above and then 120 students were selected. The students who scored one standard deviation above and below the mean were randomly assigned to the four experimental and two control groups.
Six groups of participants were similar in every respect for the fact that four experimental groups, A1 (twenty male), A2 (twenty female), B1 (twenty male), B2 (twenty female) receives a special treatment (recasts for A1,A2 and prompts for B1,B2) , whereas the other two control groups, C1 (twenty male), C2 (twenty female) did not receive feedback and continue their structure through traditional way. In a true experimental study, participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. This measure is undertaken in order to make the six groups as similar as possible before applying any treatment

3.4.1. Tasks

As this study is interaction-based, the goal was to use carefully planned tasks to involve the learners in conversational interaction. All treatments and test tasks were two- way, one-way communicative tasks, or in other words, tasks in which vital information is held by two parties and must be successfully exchanged in order to complete the tasks. The crucial task requirement for the purposes of this study was the extent to which they enable participants to produce utterances and conversations.
These interactive tasks were familiar to the students as they were used to performing similar ones during their general English lessons. The vocabulary involved in each task was considered appropriate for the proficiency level of the students and any potentially challenging words were pre-taught.
A piece of advice by Mackey and Gass (2006),is to carefully pilot test the task. As with every step of this study, the tasks were piloted in order to confirm that they would be successful in eliciting the target form (speaking CAF) and that opportunities to provide the intended feedback (corrective recasts and prompts) existed.

3.4.2. Data Collection Procedure

An experimental methodological approach was utilized for this research incorporating a pre-test, eight treatment sessions, one immediate and one delayed post-test.

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During the treatment sessions, intensive recasts and prompts were provided by the researcher in response to incorrect utterance produced by members of the experimental groups. Participants in the control group were not exposed to any interactional recasts and prompts. Participants took part in one pre-test, eight treatment sessions, one immediate post-test and one delayed post-test, lasting approximately 15 minutes for each students. Each test and treatment session took place before morning class, at lunch time. The participants chose the times which suited them best.

3.4.2.1. Pre-test Session

The pre- test was administered to participants. It consisted of pictorial story description, giving a topic and speaking about it, and story telling from L1 to L2. Any potentially challenging vocabulary was pre-taught. The session of each test was recorded on an audio-tape recorder, and then transcribed for analyzing and giving score. The data collected in the pre-test was analysed to determine the current developmental level of conversation and speaking ability exhibited by the learners.

3.4.2.2 Treatment Sessions

The treatment sessions took place over the four weeks following one week after the pre-test. Two sessions per week was held. The treatment session consisted of eight sessions of four weeks (two sessions per week) of one hour. Participants in all six groups were involved in these eight sessions that consisted of three tasks. Pictorial story completion, short stories from L1 to L2, and free conversations according to text book. All of these tasks were designed to maximize the chance of providing the target form of speaking. Along with these activities, the teacher provided either recasts or prompts in response to students' errors depending on experimental condition, that is if the class was recast class the treatment that used was recast, and if the class was prompt the treatment was prompts. The control groups performed the same task in the same way. However, they did not receive any interactional feedback. The participants in the experimental groups had their ill-formed utterances recasts or prompts by the researcher, whereas those in the control groups did not.
Throughoutthe entire duration of the study, the teacher in control group did not provide any corrective feedback in response to any errors that occurred during the speaking.
The typical responses to conversation in control group classes were a verbal ''Okay'' or a

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non-verbal gesture such as a nod. Similarly, no corrective feedback was provided to learners in any of the six groups during the pre-test and post-test tasks.
Students in all groups completed a pre-test task one week before the first treatment session began. The students' performance on the pre-test task determined participants' level of development in speaking before treatments. Students also completed two post-test tasks after the final treatment session. The level of the speaking of students produced on the pre- test were compared to those produced on an immediate pre-test task the day after the final treatment and on a delayed post-test task three weeks later the final treatment. The pre-test, treatments, and both of the post-tests were in the form of speaking elicitation tasks.

3.4.2.3. Post-test Session

One immediate post-test following straight after the completion of the eight treatment sessions was held for all participants and was conducted in exactly the same way as the pre- test. Three week later, the delayed post-test took place and both immediate and delayed post- tests followed the same procedure as the earlier pre-test. As recommended by Mackey and Gass (2005), the delayed post-test was undertaken, in order to clarify whether the effect of these particular treatments could be considered long-lasting.

3.4.2.4. Scoring and Oral Production Measures

The oral production measures included the three form of tasks, pictorial story description, story telling from L1 to L2, and giving a topic and speaking about it. Digital audio recordings were made of the oral interaction between the researcher and participants during the testing sessions, and then transcribed for determining accuracy, fluency and complexity of the participants speaking. All the recordings were then transcribed in order to investigate the effects of each type of correction feedbacks on participants' accuracy, fluency and complexity in speaking. Measures of accuracy, fluency, and complexity were developed to evaluate of the participants' oral production. These measures were largely the same as those used in other studies. (e.g. Crooks 1989; Foster and Skehan 1996; and Wendel 1997). Ellis (2003) defines the measures of CAF as follows (p.117):
Fluency measures: speech rate (number of syllables produced per second or per minutes on task, number of pauses (the total number of filled and unfilled pauses for each

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speaker), pause length, length of run (mean number of syllables between two pauses of a pre- determined length), false starts, repetitions, reformulations, replacements.
Accuracy measures: number of self-corrections, percentage of error-free clauses, target-like use of vocabulary, error per 100 words, percentage of target-like verbal morphology, percentage of target-like use of plurals.
Complexity measures: number of turns per minute, mean turn length (total number of words produced by a single speaker divided by this speaker's total number of turns),number of idea units encoded (total number of major and minor idea units in the text is counted), frequency of some specific language function (e.g. hypothesizing) (total number of times a specific language function is performed by a learner is counted), amount of subordination (total number of separate clauses divided by the total number of c- (or AS) units, use of some specific linguistic feature (e.g. different verb forms), mean number of verb arguments, type- token ratio (total number of different words used divided by the total number of words in the text).
After transcribing the recordings, CAF measures were put to use. In this research I used all of the mentioned ways for analyzing participants CAF(a sample of participants pre- test analysis is represented in appendix).

3.4.3. Data Validity and Reliability

Two of the most important issues which need addressing in any study are the validity of data and its reliability. Data validity and reliability contribute greatly to the study design, data collection procedure and data analysis process. According to Seliger and Shohamy (1989), reliability and validity are the two most important criteria for assuring the quality of the data collection procedures" (p. 184).

3.4.3.1. Data Reliability

Reliability provides information about the consistency and accuracy of the data collection procedure (Seliger & Shohamy, 1989). To achieve reliability, in the present study, the instruments and data collection procedures were thoroughly tested in a pilot study with a small sample of L2 students comparable to the sample population of the actual study. The
aim of a pilot study, as suggested by Glesne and Peshkin (1992), is to learn about the

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research process and to get a general sense of the research setting. By undertaking a pilot study, the researcher was able to revise and where necessary, modify the instruments on the basis of new information, and an important means of assessing the feasibility and usefulness of the data collection methods and making any necessary revisions before they are used with the actual research participants''(Mackey & Gass, 2005, p.43).
The following aspects of the study were comprehensively checked in the pilot study and where necessary, improvements made:

 The amount of time required to complete the testing and treatment sessions.

 The wording, relevancy and clarity of the instructions and comprehensibility of the instructions in the pre and post-tests.

 The quality of the audio-recording equipment.

 The physical position of the researcher in the room, during the testing and treatment sessions, as well as the role of the researcher at theses times and how much intervention seemed appropriate while minimizing task interruption.

 Checking for any feelings of inhibition or unwillingness to interact with either the other participants or researcher.

 The content and language (English-persion or only English) in the tasks and level of difficulty.

 The amount of time involved in transcribing the recording, so that this could be factored in for the main study.

Regarding the level of difficulty of the tasks, following the pilot test, the vocabulary in the pre-test was confirmed to be at an appropriate level for these students. The pre-test vocabulary level also matched that used in the post-tests. This measure was necessary in order to enhance reliability of any apparent improvement of conversation and speaking performance, following the treatment sessions. It is important, in a pre-test/post-test experiment design, that the pre-test be comparable in difficulty to the post-test and once this is determined to be the case then researcherscan ascertain the effects of treatment immediately.
Furthermore, each participant was given clear written instructions appropriate to their developmental level in order to reduce any confusion as to what they were expected to do.

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Other measures taken in order to enhance reliability include, the researcher being the only person to administer the treatment and testing sessions in order to minimize interviewer effects as well as, all audio-recorded test transcripts being transcribed verbatim by the researcher.

3.4.3.2. Data Validity

Data validity is an estimate of the extent to which a study or a set of instruments measures what it claims to measure. Mackey and Gass (2005) stress that after spending a great deal of time and effort in designing a study, researchers want to then make sure that the results of the study are valid. That is, they need to be meaningful and have significance not only for the sample population, which was tested but also to a broader, relevant population.

3.4.3.2.1 Internal Validity

Dornyei (2007) suggests that a full ''pre-test, post-test, control group design''(p.120) is one of the best ways to control for various threats to the internal validity (the extent to which the differences that have been found for the dependent variable can be directly related to the independent variable) of the experiment. The following measures were taken in order to minimize threats to internal validity:

 Proficiency level of participants; a strict proficiency test is administered to all participants to determine their individual level of proficiency.

 Participants mortality; at the beginning of the data collection process, enrolment information showed that all participants would at institute for at least three months. However, due to factors beyond the researcher's control, a number of students did withdraw from the institute for various personal reasons.

 Participants deception; the participants were aware that this study was concerned with teacher feedback but not specifically, recasts and prompts. It would not have been appropriate to inform them of this low-level deception at the beginning, as data and findings could have been compromised as a result.

 Instrumentation effects; the pilot test showed that the questions in the re-test instrument had strong content validity (the extent of representativeness of the measurement regarding the phenomenon about which we want information). In

addition, the tasks used in treatment and testing, were shown to have face validity

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(refers to the familiarity of the instrument) as the participants were used to performing these type of information tasks from classroom activities. An anticipated advantage of this validity was that as Mackey and Gass (2006) suggest, when participants perceive the research treatments and tests as having a connection with other language learning activities, they are far more likely to take the experiment seriously.

 Test effects; following the pilot test and feedback from the participants, it was shown that the pre- and post-tests were equivalent, in terms of vocabulary and language difficulty.

 Instructions and tasks; the pilot test indicated that the instructions and questions on the tasks as well as the instructions for the testing and treatment sessions were clear and appropriate for the developmental level of the participants.

A study must be conducted with special attention given to internal validity, as this is a prerequisite to external validity (Mackey & Gass, 2005).

3.4.3.2.2. External Validity

In this study, the researcher was concerned with the extent to which the findings generated could be relevant, not only to the research population, but also to the wider population of second language learners. This generalizability of results is referred to as external validity. In order to try to minimize threats to external validity, the researcher utilized convenience sampling.
Convenience sampling (the selection of individuals, who happen to be available) is widely used in L2 research (Mackey & Gass, 2005).The selected sample, is the basis of generalizability of results (Mackey& Gass) and ideally the most representative type of sample is one where each individual who could be selected to participate has the same chance of selection as any other. However, in L2 research, due to the focus of the study, the researcher questions under investigation and the available participants at the time of data collection, convenience sampling is far more common. In this study, delayed effects of instruction were the focus and the required developmental level of the participants was early intermediate (as determined by their general English classroom). Therefore, students at either an elementary or more advanced level, as well as those intermediate students enrolled in this language institutes for less than three months, at the start of data collection, were not
considered appropriate candidates and were consequently excluded from the sample. Due to

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these selection criteria, it is argued that this sample was sufficient size for results to be considered generalizable to a wider population of language institute students at the same level of language development.

3.5. Research Design

Regarding the various research methods available, it is important to acknowledge that
''different methods are appropriate for different situations'' (Patton, 1990, p.39). Therefore, designing a study appropriate for a specific situation is largely determined by the purpose of the study, the questions under investigation, and the sources available. Taking these points into consideration as well as being aware of the limitations associated with every research method, an experimental approach to data collection with a pre- and post-test design was selected as the most suitable for this study. So the design of this study was experimental, with a pre-test, three different treatments, as well as an immediate post-test, delayed post- test. All sections of pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test took place in the classroom and were tape recorded and analysed for participants speaking performance with focus on three aspect of CAF.
The independent variable was corrective feedback with two levels as prompts and recasts, dependant variable was speaking performance and the moderator variable is gender.

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Data Analysis and

Discussion

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4.1. Introduction

In this section, at first the homogeneity of groups were investigated. Then the findings of the quantitative analysis were presented starting with six groups mean differences, which were then explained in detail, and then, based on systematic analysis of data the results showed the positive effect of prompts on Iranian English foreign language learners. The effectiveness of both types of feedback was assessed through three oral tasks. The analysis of data is presented below. Finally the result of delayed post-test was presented to show that this effect is on long-term memory. It should be noted that control group did not took the delayed post-test.

4.2. Demographic Features

The sample includes an equal number of male and female students.

	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
female Valid male Total	60	50	50	50
female Valid male Total	60	50	50	100.0
female Valid male Total	120	100.0	100.0

Table 4.1. Gender of Participants

50 50

MALE

FAMILY

Figure 4.1. Gender of Participants

4.3. Pilot Study of the PET Test

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Piloting the language proficiency test at first, the objective sections of the PET were piloted with 41 intermediate level students whose language proficiency was similar to that of the participants of the study. Then, NRT item analysis including item facility and item discrimination was conducted for each item. After omitting malfunctioning items, the reliability of the test was estimated using the KR-21 formula; and it came out to be
satisfactory with an index of 0.78 (Table 4.2).

KR-21r	K
0.78	54

Table4.2. Reliability of the PET

Proficiency Test

A group of 200 students took a proficiency test. Based on the mean (36.65) plus and minus one standard deviations, (6.39), 120 subjects were selected to participate in the main
study. The K-R21 reliability index for the proficiency test is .85.

Mean

Variance

K-R21

Proficiency

Test

200

36.65

6.394

40.889

.85

Table 4.3. Descriptive Statistics of Proficiency Test

4.4. Data Analyses and Results

Pre-test Results

Two t-test were run on the pre-test data to establish the extent to which the four participating experimental groups were comparable. As a pre-test, students performed three tasks namely pictorial story completion task, story telling from L1 to L2 task, and discussing about a topic task (in this research, the topic is generation gap). These separate percentage scores were calculated for each student to achieve content validity. Three separate means and ANCOVA were calculated for the groups.

Task One: Pictorial Story Telling

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According to the performance of six groups in pre-test and post-test in pictorial story telling task section, the below, results have been achieved. Table and figures below display
means and standard deviations for all participants groups.

Pretest

A C F

Post-test 1

A C F

GroupC1
GroupC2
Group A1
Group A2
Group B1
GroupB2

n M

20 11.

S M D

1. 9.

51 23

1. 9.

35 51

1. 9.

85 94

1. 9.

38 60

1. 9.

45 14

1. 9.

68 47

S M S D D

1. 9. 1.

36 7 71

1. 9. 1.

57 28 98

1. 9. 1.

25 48 23

1. 9. 1.

39 35 11

1. 9. 1.

12 38 19

1. 9. 1.

23 48 74

11.

15.

14.

16.

15.

S M D

1. 9.1

48 6

1. 9.4

28 5

1. 11.

51 25

1. 10.

56 58

1. 12.

45 02

1. 11.

32 12

S M D

1. 9.9

29 1

1. 11.

45 02

1. 10.

59 95

1. 12.

36 12

1. 11.

48 74

1.5

1.8

1.7

13.

1.6

13.

Table 4.4. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test, Mean Score and SD in Pictorial Story Telling

Pretest.Accuracy Posttest1.Accuracy

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

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Figure 4.2. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Accuracy in Pictorial

StoryTelling

Pretest.Complexity Posttest1.Complexity

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

Figure 4.3. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Complexity in

Pictorial Story Telling

Pretest.Fluency Posttest1.Fluency

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

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Figure 4.4. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Fluency in Pictorial

Story Telling

Results pertaining to the participants' performance in the pictorial story completion task indicate that; group A1 (male) participants mean score in accuracy in the pre-test was M= 11.26 and in immediate post-test the mean for this participants accuracy was M=15.78, the mean score for complexity in pre-test of group A1 (male) participants was M=9.94, and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants complexity was M=11.25, and finally the mean score for fluency of group A1 (male) in pre-test was 9.48 and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants fluency was 11.02. So we can conclude that, recasts have positive effect on male participants' accuracy, but a very little effect on complexity and fluency of male participants speaking.
In group A2 (female) participants mean score in accuracy in pre-testwas M=11.89 and in immediate post-test the mean score for participants' accuracy was 14.35, the mean score for complexity in pre-test of group A2 (female) participants was M=9.66, and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants' complexity was M=10.58, and finally the mean score for fluency of group A2 (female) in pre-test was M=9.35 and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants' fluency was M=10.95. So we can conclude that the recasts, again, have positive effect on female participants' accuracy, and a very little effect on complexity and fluency of female participants speaking.
When we compare the group A1 with A2, we realize that A1 (male) performance in recasts is better than A2 (female):
Accuracy of A1 > Accuracy of A2 (15.78 >14.35) Complexity of A1 > Complexity of A2 (11.25 >10.58) Fluency of A1 > Fluency of A2 (11.02>10.95)
As you see, the difference between performance of two groups are very small and
trivial. So, we conclude that the recasts effect for male and female are approximately equal.

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Participants mean score for accuracy in group B1 (male), in pre-test was M=11.35 and in immediate post-test the mean for this participants' accuracy was M=16.1, the mean score for complexity in pre-test of group B1 (male) participants was M=9.14, and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants complexity was M=12.02, and finally the mean score for fluency of group B1 (male) in pre-test was M=9.38, and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants' fluency was M=12.12. So, we conclude that prompts have positive effect on male participants' accuracy, also it has some positive effect on complexity and fluency, but prompts effect on accuracy is more than complexity and fluency of male participants speaking.
In group B2 (female) participants mean score in accuracy in pre-test was M=11.41 and in immediate post-test the mean score for participants' accuracy was M=15.25 and the mean score for complexity in pre-test of group B2 (female) participants was M=9.47, and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants' complexity was M=11.12 and finally the mean score for fluency of group B2 (female) in pre-test was M=9.48 and in immediate post-test the mean score for this participants' fluency was 11.74. So, we can conclude that the prompts have also, positive effects on female participants accuracy, and in contrast to recasts, prompts also had positive effects on complexity and fluency of female participants speaking.
When we compare the groups B1 with B2, we realize that, again, B1 (male)
performance in prompts is better than group B2 (female): Accuracy of B1 > Accuracy of B2 (16.01>15.25) Complexity of B1 >Complexity of B2 (12.2>11.12) Fluency of B1 >Fluency of B2 (12.12>11.74).
Again, the differences are small and trivial. So we conclude that prompts effects for male and female are approximately equal.
But, with regard to mean score of all different parts of pre-test and post-test, we conclude that groups B1 and B2 performed better than A1 and A2. So we realize that there is a difference between the recasts and prompts effects on participants' performance. Actually
prompts are beneficial than recasts.

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The results of ANCOVA run, provided in table 4.5, revealed that the differences
between the four groups were significant on the immediate post-test, F=8.265, p=.00.

Groups	N	M	SD
B1& B2	40	14.56	2.14
A1 & A2	40	12.38	2.03

Table 4.5. Descriptive Statistics for Story Completion Task

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 55.801 4 13.950 8.265 .000

Within Groups 126.586 75 1.688

Total 182.388 79

P= ≤ .05

Table 4.6. ANCOVA for Pictorial Story Completion

Task Two: Story Telling from L1 to L2

According to the performance of six groups in pre-test and immediate post-test in story telling from L1 to L2 task section, the following results have been achived. Table and
figures below display means and standard deviations for all participants groups.

Pretest

A C F

n S S S
Post-test1

A C F

S S S

Group C1
Group C2
Group A1
Group A2

20 12.

D M

1. 9.

45 85

1. 9.

85 35

1. 9.

78 81

1. 9.

87 08

D M

1. 9

1. 8.

35 87

1. 9.

54 77

1. 9.

84 7

D M

1. 12.

24 21

1. 12.

14 88

1. 15.

65 87

1. 15.

20 26

D M D

1. 9.4 1.

21 5 56

1. 9.5 1.

85 6 39

1. 10. 1.

54 25 47

1. 10. 1.

94 26 34

M D

9.2 1.

3 38

8.5 1.

6 45

10. 1.

87 25

10. 1.

69 32

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Group B1	20	12.	1.	9.	1.	9.	1.	16.	1.	11.	1.	11.	1.
		85	57	26	38	18	16	41	36	36	39	32	36
Group B2	20	12.	1.	9.	1.	9.	1.	16.	1.	11.	1.	11.	1.

47 58 47 58 54 45 12 49 43 27 14 28

Table 4.7. Pre-test Immediate Post-test, Mean Score and SD in Story Telling from L1 to L2

Pretest.Accuracy Posttest1.Accuracy

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

Figure 4.5. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Accuracy in Story

Telling from L1 to L2

Pretest.Fluency Posttest1.Fluency

0 http://www.ijser.org

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

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Figure 4.6. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Fluency in Story

Telling from L1 to L2

Pretest.Complexity Posttest1.Complexity

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

Figure 4.7. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Complexity in Story

Telling from L1 to L2

The results pertaining to the participants' translation of a story from L1 (persion) to
L2 (English) show that:
Mean score for accuracy of group A1 (male) in pre-test for second task, was M=12.34 and in immediate post-test M=15.87, for complexity M=9.81 in pre-test and M=10.25 in immediate post-test, and for fluency M=9.77 in pre-test and M=10.87 in immediate post-test. So, in this section of task, also, recasts have positive effect on accuracy
but little effect on complexity and fluency of male participants' speaking.

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Mean score for accuracy of group A2 (female), was M=12.84 and in immediate post- test M=12.26, for complexity M=9.08 in pre-test and M=10.26 in immediate post-test, and for fluency M=9.7 in pre-test and M=10.69 in immediate post-test. So, again, in this section of task, recasts have positive effects on accuracy of female participants speaking, but little on fluency and complexity.
In group B1 (male) participants mean score for accuracy was M=12.85 in pre-test and
16.41 in immediate post-test, for complexity M=9.26 in pre-test and M=11.36 in immediate post-test, and for fluency M=9.18 in pre-test and M=11.32 in post-test. So, we conclude that, in this section of task, prompts have positive effect on accuracy of male participants speaking, and also prompts have some effect on complexity and fluency.
In group B2 (female) participants mean score for accuracy was M=12.47 in pre-test and 16.12 in immediate post-test, for complexity mean score was M=9.47 in pre-testand M=11.43 in delayed post-test, and for fluency mean score was M=9.54 in pre-test and M=11.14 in immediate post-test. Here we saw that groups' performance in this task (story telling from L1 to L2) has approximately the same result as in task one (pictorial story

telling).

Groups	N	M	SD
B1 & B2	21.502	4	5.375
A1 & A2	5198.160	344	15.111

Table 4.8. Descriptive Statistics for Story Telling from L1 to L2

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 60.417 4 15.104 11.153 .000

Within Groups 101.571 75 1.354

Total 161.988 79

Table 4.9. ANCOVA for Story Telling From L1 to L2

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Task Three: Topic for Conversation; Generation Gap

According to the performance of six groups in pre-test and immediate post-test in conversation about generation gap, the following results have been achieved. Table and figures below display means and standard deviations for all groups.

Pretest

A C F

Posttest1

A C F

GroupC1
GroupC2
Group A1
Group A2
Group B1
GroupB2

n M

20 12.

S M S D D

1. 9. 1.

38 91 43

1. 9. 1.

98 68 84

1. 9. 1.

74 31 17

1. 9. 1.

98 54 75

1. 9. 1.

45 46 37

1. 9. 1.

15 19 52

S M D

9. 1.

25 41

8. 1.

98 12

9. 1.

68 28

9. 1.

66 36

9. 1.

18 35

9. 1.

24 28

M S D

12. 1.

46 54

12. 1.

14 87

15. 1.

78 38

15. 1.

38 75

16. 1.

25 41

16. 1.

98 07

M S D

9.2 1.

6 48

9.5 1.

1 73

11. 1.

85 36

11. 1.

98 85

12. 1.

45 50

12. 1.

19 94

9.5

8.7

11.

12.

1.6

1.2

1.5

1.2

1.6

1.1

Table 4.10. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test, Mean Scores and SD in Speaking about Generation Gap

Pretest.Accuracy Posttest1.Accuracy

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Figure 4.8. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Accuracy in Speaking

about Generation Gap

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Pretest.Fluency Posttest1.Fluency

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

Figure 4.9. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Fluency in Speaking

about Generation Gap

Pretest.Complexity Posttest1.Complexity

Group C1 Group C2 Group A1 Group A2 Group B1 Group B2

Figure 4.10. Pre-test, Immediate Post-test: Comparative Analysis of Mean Scores in Complexity in

Speaking about Generation Gap

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The results of table and figures above, indicate that participants in task three, performed the same as in task one and two. Mean of experimental groups in comparison with control groups mean, as the above figures, indicate that participants in the experimental group performed significantly better on the speaking performance tasks of post-test than the control groups. To measure the effects of the treatments, analyses of covariance

(ANCOVAs), using the pre-test as a covariance, in three tasks, run on the data.

Groups	N	M	SD
B1 & B2	21.502	4	5.375
A1 & A2	5198.160	344	15.111

Table 4.11. Descriptive Statistics for Conversation

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 31.724 4 7.931 4.194 .004

Within Groups 141.826 75 1.891

Total 173.550 79

Table 4.12. ANCOVA for Conversation about Generation Gap

Analyses of T-tests

The t-test below showed that there was no statistically significant difference between
A1 (male) and A2 (female) groups who received recasts.

t-test for Equality of Means

t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

Equal variances assumed 17.456 2

000.

3.4556 3.8531

Equal variances not assumed 12.758 3

2.00

2.8564 4.4534

Table 4.13. First t-test for Equality of Means

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Also the results of the t-test for group of B1 (male) and B2 (female) indicated that there was no significant differences between the two groups who received prompts.

t-test for Equality of Means

t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

Equal variances assumed 24.1147 2

41.0

2.4651 3.5647

Equal variances not

assumed

15.1220 3

0.00

3.5469 4.3165

Table 4.14. Second t-test for Equality of Means

An independent t-test was run to compare the experimental and control groups'mean scores on post-test of speaking performance in order to probe the effect of prompts and recasts on male and female speaking performance of Iranian EFL learners. The results of the independent t-test represent a large effect size, indicate that there is a significance difference between experimental and control groups' mean score on the post-test of the speaking performance. Thus the first null hypothesis as there is no significant differential impact of recasts and prompts on females' speaking (CAF) performance is rejected.

t-test for Equality of Means

t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

Equal variances assumed 15.647 2 .004 4.1757 3.8447

Equal variances not

assumed

13.870 3 .002 3.1457 2.2815

Table 4.15.Independent Samples Test

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Delayed Post-test

Immediate post-test and delayed post-test examined the participants' achievement in speaking in three aspect of speaking performance at the end of their relevant courses of instruction. The participants' scores on this test were compared with control group mean, to find points of differences and significance in each. Delayed post-test (that is the repetition of the immediate post-test for only experimental group of the immediate post-test for only experimental group after three weeks) conducted to measure that this effect is on long-term memory. Since the students' mean scores on the immediate post-test were approximately the same on the delayed post-test, it can be concluded that the effect of recasts and prompts in
experimental group is on long-term memory.

GROUP A1
GROUP A2
GROUP B1
GROUP B2

A 2

Test1 2

A 2

Test2 2

A 2

Test3 2

15.35

11.18

11.24

15.45

10.36

10.09

15.48

11.64

11.38

1.19

1.39

1.41

1.15

1.95

1.93

1.29

1.99

1.78

14.4

10.3

10.7

15.1

10.4

15.1

11.7

11.4

1.66

1.86

1.61

1.32

1.74

1.72

1.74

1.84

1.19

16.23

12.43

12.31

16.46

11.39

11.74

16.26

12.78

12.38

1.86

1.61

1.32

1.79

1.72

1.74

1.84

1.35

1.73

15.68

11.62

11.46

16.84

11.53

11.68

16.98

12.51

12.13

1.86

1.61

1.34

1.62

1.15

1.51

1.84

1.65

1.73

Table 4.16. Mean Score and SD of Three Tests in Delayed Post-test

4.5. Discussion

It is valuable to compare the results of the present study with those of previous feedback based on instruction researchers. Some studies have suggested that speaking

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abilities of students are enhanced through prompt instruction of feedback strategies. Nassaji's study (2009), for example, on the effects of feedbacks to speaking of pre-intermediate Iranian EFL learners' speaking revealed the positive influence of form-focused instruction of feedback strategies.
These findings are further proved by Kollahi's study on the effects of feedbacks on pre-intermediate students speaking performance. In their study with concerning the differential effects of prompts and recasts, the result of the immediate post-test demonstrated the superiority of prompts in comparison to recasts which can be accounted for by taking into consideration the explicit-implicit dichotomy. Explicit feedback led to much more feedback appreciation. The justification behind the less effectiveness of recastwas the fact that the learners couldn't notice the teachers' reformulation as a kind of corrective feedback, rather than they might have assumed it as a mere positive evidence.
The results discussed above show that the findings of the present research are in line with those of Nassaji, H., Kollahi, SH., & Tallebi, M. (2009), ''The Effect of Feedback on L2
Speaking Ability''. There is nevertheless a small difference between this study and that of Nassaji, H., Kollahi, SH., & Tallebi, M. (2009).The aim of these studies is to deal with one of the most important issues in EFL, that is, whether teachers should focus on feedback or not, and if yes to which strategy of feedback should be focused.
From what have been discussed above, it is demonstrated that recasts and prompts constitute two important categories of corrective feedback. Comparing the effects of these two feedback forms may cast light on theoretical issues such as (a) the role of input and output in L2 learning, and (b) the cognitive roles that recasts and prompts play in L2 learning.
The findings of the present research are also in line with those of Kollahi, SH. & Farrokhi, F., & Nassaji, H. (2009). According to Farrokhi's research, comparing the rate of uptake in recasts and prompts shows big differences. Following negotiated feedback, recasts were the second in items of leading to uptake, with 51.7% of prompts leading to uptake. In contrast, only 16.2% of recasts led to uptake, a figure that is much less than that of prompts. These findings tend to be a step forward in resolving a contradiction between two groups of researchers who have different views on recasts and prompts. As VanPatten (in press)
pointed out, it is clear that any comparative study involving different researcher is bound to

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lead to either subtle or perhaps profound differences in the operationalization of treatment and assessments that could affect the outcome of a study. Other studies focusing on the writing abilities of the students have also proved the usefulness of prompt strategy of feedback.
The results of the present study, based on six groups post-test mean scores and according to independent t-test (t=(15.647)=.15 P=.000<.05; R=.15), indicate that there was a significant difference between experimental and control groups' mean story on the post-test of speaking performance. Thus the first hypothesis that there is no significant differential impact of recasts and prompts on females' speaking (ACF) performance of Iranian EFL learners is rejected. Also, according to the results of this independent t-test, the second hypothesis, there is no significant differential impact of recasts and prompts on males' speaking (ACF) performance, is also rejected. And there is no difference between the performance of male and female. Since the students' mean score on the immediate post-test of speaking (ACF) performance (A1=15.78, 11.25, 11.09; A2=14.35, 10.58, 10.59; B1=16.01, 12.02, 12.12; B2= 15.25, 11.12, 11.74) are the approximately the same mean score on delayed post-test (A1=15.35, 11.18, 11.24; A2=14.45, 10.36, 10.47; B1=16.23,
12.43, 12.31; B2=15.68, 11.62, 11.46), it can be concluded that the effect of prompts and
recasts is on long-term memory.

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Conclusion

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5.1. Introduction

This chapter presents the discussion of the results of the study and gives suggestions for further research. More specifically the results pertaining to each research question will be presented in three sections each followed by its own discussion. With the ongoing interest in the effects of different corrective feedback techniques and in light of some of the theoretical debates that emerged from such interest and resulting research, the present study set out to investigate the effects of recasts and prompts on different genders speaking performance and development. After presenting the obtained results in the previous chapter, the present chapter, discusses the findings with respect to each of the three questions. It also presents the pedagogical implications of the results and outlines the directions for further research on corrective feedback in EFL.

5.2. Conclusion

This research was motivated by a polarized debate about the ultimate role of recasts and prompts in L2 speaking performance. Some researchers advocate recasts as an effective corrective feedback techniques because they are implicit, unobtrusive and contingent on the learner's intended meaning (Doughty, 1998; Leeman, 2003). Others, however, argue that recasts are ambiguous and, therefore, might be less effective, particularly in classrooms where primarily meaning-based instruction is provided (Lyster, 1998a; Lyster & Ranta,
1997). Some advocates of the latter position (Lyster, 1998, 2004; Lyster & Ranta, 1997) propose that prompts are a more effective technique. In light of this debate, the present study investigated the comparative effect of Prompts and Recasts on EFL learners' speaking accuracy, complexity, and fluency, while focusing on different genders, in both instructions.

The First Research Question Was:

Are there any significant differential effects of using recasts and prompts on male and female learners' speaking (CAF) performance? The results of the t-test in the post-test phase

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indicated that both male and female in prompt groups, significantly have done better than pre-test on speaking accuracy, complexity and fluency. Thus, the response to the first research question is affirmative. Prompts lead to improved performance for speaking (accuracy, complexity, and fluency) performance of both males and females.

The Second Research Question Was:

Which feedback strategy has more effect? The answer to the second research question is that: there is a significant difference between speaking accuracy of EFL learners who are exposed to prompt in processing instruction compared to recasts instruction. In fact, the results of this experiment show that prompts is significantly effective on how learners produced accurate, fluent, and complex sentences when they speak. The results show that prompt strategy has more effect, but this effect on different aspects of speaking (accuracy, complexity, fluency) was not equal. We saw that prompt had more effect on accuracy, but little effect on complexity and fluency. Recast strategy, also has effect on accuracy but this effect was very little, and approximately very loweffect on complexity and fluency. So we conclude that prompts are more beneficial than recasts. Prompts groups performance on the post-test was significantly higher than the pre-test. So, speaking accuracy of prompt groups was improved during treatment sessions.

The Third Research Question Was:

Which group (male or female) benefits more from feedback strategy? The results showed that males performed better than females but this differences was very very trivial, so we must conclude that the effects of recasts and prompts on males and females performance are equal.

5.3. Pedagogical Implication of the Study

This study investigated two techniques of corrective feedback, demonstrating higher gains after the application of recasts and prompts on males' and females' speaking. Therefore, this study provides some support for the use of recasts and prompts regarding students' gender. Moreover, teachers need to get familiarized with such techniques which keep the speaking nature of language classes. So, it would be reasonable to allocate some
time to the training of teachers in this regard.

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Five major findings have emerged from the current study:
(1) Prompts and recasts are both effective.
(2) Prompts seem to be more effective than recasts in leading to speaking fluency and complexity.
(3) Prompts are more effective that recasts in speaking accuracy.
(4) English teachers should adopt appropriate corrective feedback based on the type of speaking errors, and the efficacy on correction, or even students' performance. Therefore, it is advisable that English teachers should refer to the types of speaking errors, the efficacy or correction, or students' preference rather than rely on their teaching preference too much.
The results from this study contribute to the field's understanding of how prompts and recasts affect learners' production of L2 target forms and structures in speaking. So, the result of this study has some hints for English instructors to pay attention to while teaching speaking. They can benefit from processing instruction strategy to improve their students' speaking accuracy, complexity, and performance.
Also, the result of this study could have significant implication for syllabus designer, material developers, and those preparing speaking textbooks. They can achieve a better result by careful inclusion of appropriate processing instruction activities in designing syllabuses, developing materials, and preparing speaking textbook.
Concerning the results of the current study long with those of feedback studies, and studies examining the relative effects of prompts and recasts, this conclusion can be drawn that is significant to EFL theory: This study contributes to growing body of literature that suggests that prompts promote speaking development and might constitute a direct path to acquisition via the establishment and strengthening of form- meaning connection. The current study is particularly important to this body literature, given the various methodological developments as part of the research design.
Last but not least, the speaking of the students who did not play an active role in the corrective feedback episodes show that teachers do not need to correct every single
student in their class. Feedback has been attacked on the ground that it is not feasible to

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correct everyone in class. It is certainly illogical to expect teachers to correct everyone in class but that should not be a reason to abandon feedback because even those who are not targeted by the feedback can benefit from it, and they sometimes do so better than those who are being corrected.
All the findings can be used to inform EFL and L2 speaking in general.

5.4. Suggestions for Further Studies

It is a fact that no research is complete in its own right. The more answers are obtained; the more questions will naturally be raised. The domain of feedback is too vast to be explored in one single study. Future research needed to shed light on other aspects and effects of prompts and recasts. It is therefore reasonable to end this study by suggesting some topics related to future studies.

 All the time, prompts have been known for producing ''pushed output'', but the important role of meta-linguistic feedback as one of promoting moves has gone unnoticed. It is suggested to conduct a similar study in which meta- linguistic clues would be eliminated during treatments in prompts group to estimate the degree of uptaking through merely pushing learner to produce output.

 Furthermore, future studies could explore in more detail whether L2 learners involved in research are aware of the fact that the recasts and prompts are in fact corrective, in nature.

 A longer period of experimental time is suggested for future researchers.

 It is suggested that future researchers pick up and interview those students who can really know the negative attitudes toward corrective feedback after the practice of treatment.

 The further investigation based on longer population from different institutes will contribute to the creation of more reliable research.

 This research focuses on the speaking accuracy, complexity and fluency; the others can study the other language skills and language components, such as writing and reading.

 Also this research emphasizes on the EFL learners. So, the other researchers

can make with the ESL learners for new information.

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 Last but not least, more groups of participants of different ages can be included to compare the effects of corrective feedback on adults and children.

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Appendixes

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Appendix A: Pre-Test and Post-Test

Test One: Pictorial Story Completion, (according to the picture, complete a story, in 5 min)

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Test Two: Story from L1 to L2, (translate this persion story to english, in 5 min)

ﻥﺍﺪﻨﻔﺳﻮﮔ.ﺩﺮﺑ ﻱﺍ ﻪﭙﺗ ﻱﻻﺎﺑ ﺍﺮﭼ ﻱﺍﺮﺑ ﺍﺭ ﺶﻧﺍﺪﻨﻔﺳﻮﮔ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﻱﺯﻭﺭ .ﻮﮔ ﻍﻭﺭﺩ ﺭﺎﻴﺴﺑ ﺩﻮﺑ ﻲﻧﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﻢﻳﺪﻗ ﻱﺎﻬﻧﺎﻣﺯ ﺭﺩ

ﺎﺘﺳﻭﺭ ﻡﺩﺮﻣ .ﺩﻮﺑ ﺎﺘﺳﻭﺭ ﻲﻟﺎﻫﺍ ﻥﺩﺮﻛ ﺎﺷﺎﻤﺗ ﻝﻮﻐﺸﻣ ﻪﭙﺗ ﻱﻻﺎﺑ ﺯﺍ ﻭ ﺖﺴﺸﻧ ﻲﮔﺭﺰﺑ ﮓﻨﺳ ﻱﻭﺭ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ .ﺪﻧﺩﻮﺑ ﺍﺮﭼ ﻝﻮﻐﺸﻣ ﺵﺩﻮﺧ ﺎﺑ ﻮﮔ ﻍﻭﺭﺩ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ .ﻍﺎﺑ ﺭﺩ ﻢﻫ ﻱﺍ ﻩﺪﻋ ﻭ ﺪﻧﺩﺮﻜﻴﻣ ﺭﺎﻛ ﻪﻋﺭﺰﻣ ﺭﺩ ﻱﺍ ﻩﺪﻋ .ﺪﻧﺩﻮﺑ ﻝﻮﻐﺸﻣ ﻱﺭﺎﻛ ﻪﺑ ﻡﺍﺪﻛ ﺮﻫ

ﻭ ﻥﺩﺯ ﺩﺎﻳﺮﻓ ﻪﺑ ﺩﺮﻛ ﻉﻭﺮﺷ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ .ﺪﻴﺳﺭ ﺶﻨﻫﺫ ﻪﺑ ﻱﺮﻜﻓ ﻥﺎﻬﮔﺎﻧ .ﺪﻧﺰﺑ ﻝﻮﮔ ﻲﻤﻛ ﺍﺭ ﺎﺘﺳﻭﺭ ﻡﺩﺮﻣ ﻪﻧﻮﮕﭼ ﻪﻛ ﺪﻴﺸﻳﺪﻧﺍ ﻚﻤﻛ ﻪﺑ ﻥﺍﻭﺩ ﻥﺍﻭﺩ ﺪﻧﺪﻴﻨﺷ ﺍﺭ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﻱﺍﺪﺻ ﻪﻛ ﺎﺘﺳﻭﺭ ﻡﺩﺮﻣ .ﻚﻤﻛ ﻚﻤﻛ .ﺪﻳﺭﺩ ﺍﺭ ﻢﻧﺍﺪﻨﻔﺳﻮﮔ .ﺪﻣﺁ گﺮﮔ ﺪﻣﺁ گﺮﮔ :ﺖﻔﮔ ﻭ ﻪﺘﻔﮔ ﻍﻭﺭﺩ ﻪﻛ ﺪﻧﺪﻴﻤﻬﻓ ﺎﺘﺳﻭﺭ ﻲﻟﺎﻫﺍ .ﻥﺪﻨﺨﻴﻣ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﻪﻛ ﺪﻧﺪﻳﺩ ﺪﻧﺪﻴﺳﺭ ﻪﭙﺗ ﻱﻻﺎﺑ ﻪﺑ ﻲﺘﻗﻭ ﺎﻣﺍ .ﺪﻨﻫﺩ ﺶﺗﺎﺠﻧ ﺎﺗ ﺪﻧﺪﻣﺁ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﺪﻨﺘﻔﮔ ﻭ ﺪﻧﺩﺮﻛ ﻝﻭ ﺍﺭ ﻥﺎﺷﺭﺎﻛ ﻩﺭﺎﺑﻭﺩ ﻡﺩﺮﻣ .ﻚﻤﻛ ﻚﻤﻛ.ﺪﻣﺍ گﺮﮔ ﺪﻣﺁ گﺮﮔ ﺩﺯ ﺩﺎﻳﺮﻓ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﻩﺭﺎﺑﻭﺩ ﻲﺗﺪﻣ ﺯﺍ ﺲﭘ .ﺪﻨﺘﺸﮔﺮﺑ ﻲﺘﻋﺎﺳ ﺯﺍ ﻲﭘ .ﺪﻳﺪﻨﺧ ﻲﻣ ﻭ ﺩﻮﺑ ﻪﺘﻔﮔ ﻍﻭﺭﺩ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﺰﻴﻧ ﺭﺎﺑ ﻦﻳﺍ ﻲﻟﻭ .ﺪﻧﺪﻳﻭﺩ ﺵﺍ ﻚﻤﻛ ﻪﺑ ﻭ ﺪﻳﻮﮕﻴﻣ ﺖﺳﺍﺭ ﺭﺎﺑ ﻦﻳﺍ ﺪﻳﺎﺷ ﻡﺩﺮﻣ .ﺪﻣﺍ گﺬﮔ ﺪﻣﺍ .گﺮﮔ ﻚﻤﻛ ﻚﻤﻛ ﺩﺯ ﺩﺎﻳﺮﻓ .ﺩﻮﺑ ﻩﺪﺷ ﻚﺸﺧ ﺎﺟ ﻚﻳ ﺶﺳﺮﺗ ﺯﺍ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ .ﺩﺮﻛ ﻪﻠﻤﺣ ﻪﻠﮔ ﻪﺑ ﻲﮔﺮﮔ ﻥﺎﻬﮔﺎﻧ ﺯﺍ ﺎﺗ ﺪﻨﭼ گﺮﮔ .ﺪﻨﺘﻓﺮﻧ ﺶﻜﻤﻛ ﻪﺑ . ﺪﻳﻮﮕﻴﻣ ﻍﻭﺭﺩ ﻢﻫ ﺭﺎﺑ ﻦﻳﺍ ﺎﻤﺘﺣ ﺪﻨﺘﻔﮔ ﺩﻮﺧ ﺎﺑ ﻲﻟﻭ ﺪﻧﺪﻴﻨﺷ ﺍﺭ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ ﻱﺍﺪﺻ ﺎﺘﺳﻭﺭ

.ﻲﻳﻮﮔ ﻍﻭﺭﺩ ﺖﺒﻗﺎﻋ ﺖﺳﺍ ﻦﻳﺍ .ﺩﻮﺑ ﻩﺪﺷ ﻲﻤﺧﺯ ﺰﻴﻧ ﻥﺎﭘﻮﭼ .ﺩﺭﻮﺧ ﺍﺭ ﻥﺍﺪﻨﻔﺳﻮﮔ

Test Three: Speak about Generation Gap in 5 Min.

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Appendix B: Sample of test analysis

Analysis of Topic for Conversation (Generation Gap)

In the past people did not have // possibilities for ere r ease such as (4/0) //past people did not have personal:: car and for come and // back or {transport goods} used from horse or donkey but at present there is // en en separated car for {different} case:: and another example is
{public} is formation er er (8/0) in {the past} there was not // television {en then} en laptop computer or:: even mobile phone:: and (1/5) or magazine // and did not {know} about:: and policy, sport art // and did not connections (1.5) // ere r with outer would (1.5) but at present all people :: even children connect with:: and all cases that related with them// in the past there dad not freedom and (2.0)woman girls {had limited} and could not take part // social problem {but now woman} and girls attend in all // aspect such as // medical en en generation
{gap} is different. This is {start} many years {ago} men and technology (3.0) {have been development} (1.5) ere r the people way think is different // even all time // the gaps{are} ere r deleting (1.5) the men life // have been luxi the {land} and animals:: and jungle the earth // etc {are}over throw the length of human {is smaller} than many years// {and} ago the technology has done (2.0) longevity {smaller} the generation // are {changed} (2.0) completely {today} we aspect too (1.0) today // of every thing // the men willing // development // {tools}. (total speaking time= 5 minutes)

Analysis of Story from L1 to L2 and Pictorial Story Completion

Liar shepherd (3.0) in {ancient} time// there (6.0) {was} a {shepherd} (2.0) very liarmm{one day} a (1.0) shepherd//(1.0)// mm mm carried sheep {for} ranching {on top} of the heel (3.0) sheep {were}// ranching {and}{shepherd}(2.0) sited on large {stone} (1.0) and from {top} of heel// en (2.0)was {watching} village//{people}(4.0) and // they {were mm working} (2.0) some people // worked {in land} mm and another {people} work in // garden {liar} shepherd// though (5.0) that how {cheated} village people(1.0). (total speaking time=5
minutes)

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Shoe maker and elves::(2.0) {one day} a // shoe maker // (2.0){was very}// tired and //
yawned {he could not} {continue}:: (2.6){to} repair {shoe} (3.0) {he went} to rest:: and
{when} he (2.0) backed// he {saw} that {shoes}(1.0)were//repaired {right}now (1.0) one of
{customer}(2.0)came {and} request// her shoes (2.0)mm mm {suddenly}(1.0) the shoe maker 91.0) surprised (1.0) er er with (1.00 to see {shoes} that was // (5.0)repaired//the woman(5.0) {that} was customer:(4.0) satisfied//from shoes//(4.0) and gave {a lot of } money
{for man} (2.0) when {the} man:: back to (2.0) {his home} he// told (2.0) all {matter}to em
his wife(2.0)::finally{he} found//(1.0) that// elves:: repaired//(2.0)shoes (total time=10min).

Key: // boundaries of AS-units

() length of pauses in seconds

{} dysfluency

:: subordinate clause boundary

Measure Text one Text two &three

Number of AS-Units 22 units 25 units Total length of main pauses 28 seconds 90 seconds Dysfluencies (total words) 42 words 127 words Number of subordinate clauses 7 clauses 6 clauses
Total number of words 233 words 217 words

(minus dysfluencies)
Analysis of three texts based on Foster et al.'s system

Measure Text one Text two& three

Self-correction 10 15

Error-free clauses	51.7%	6.5%
Target-like use of verb tenses	20/31=64.5%	9/34=26.5%
Target-like use of plurals	3/3=100%	3/6=50%
Target-like use of vocabulary	5/233=.02	18/218=.08

Three texts compared in terms of measure of accuracy

Measure Text one Text two & three

International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 9, September-2013 1690

ISSN 2229-5518

Text length 22 AS-Units 25 AS-Units

Number of major idea units	8	6
Number of framing statements	4	0
Amount of subordination	1.32	1.24
Number of different verb forms	11	9
Ratio of indefinite articles	.45	.087
Mean number of verb arguments	1.83	1.70
Type-token ratio	.52	.53

Three texts compared in terms of measures of complexity

Measure Text one Text two & three

Speech rate (syllables per minute) 88 71
Pause length (seconds) 28 90
Average length of run (syllables) 9.2 6.6
False starts 4 15
Repetitions 5 19
Reformulations 3 10

Replacements 6 7
Three texts compared in terms of fluency